Sidewall metal spacers for forming metal gates in quantum devices

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are fabrication techniques for providing metal gates in quantum devices, as well as related quantum devices. For example, in some embodiments, a method of manufacturing a quantum device may include providing a gate dielectric over a qubit device layer, providing over the gate dielectric a pattern of non-metallic elements referred to as “gate support elements,” and depositing a gate metal on sidewalls of the gate support elements to form a plurality of gates of the quantum device.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure relates generally to the field of quantum computing, and more specifically, to methods for forming metal gates in quantum circuits and to various quantum devices with such metal gates.

BACKGROUND

Quantum computing refers to the field of research related to computation systems that use quantum mechanical phenomena to manipulate data. These quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition (in which a quantum variable can simultaneously exist in multiple different states) and entanglement (in which multiple quantum variables have related states irrespective of the distance between them in space or time), do not have analogs in the world of classical computing, and thus cannot be implemented with classical computing devices.

Quantum computers use so-called quantum bits, referred to as qubits (both terms “bits” and “qubits” often interchangeably refer to the values that they hold as well as to the actual devices that store the values). Similar to a bit of a classical computer, at any given time, a qubit can be either 0 or 1. However, in contrast to a bit of a classical computer, a qubit can also be 0 and 1 at the same time, which is a result of superposition of quantum states—a uniquely quantum-mechanical phenomenon. Entanglement also contributes to the unique nature of qubits in that input data to a quantum processor can be spread out among entangled qubits, allowing manipulation of that data to be spread out as well: providing input data to one qubit results in that data being shared to other qubits with which the first qubit is entangled.

Compared to well-established and thoroughly researched classical computers, quantum computing is still in its infancy, with the highest number of qubits in a solid-state quantum processor currently being below 100. One of the main challenges resides in protecting qubits from decoherence so that they can stay in their information-holding states long enough to perform the necessary calculations and read out the results. Another challenge resides in coming up with fabrication techniques that provide sufficient control of the dimensions and composition of various elements in quantum circuits.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments will be readily understood by the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. To facilitate this description, like reference numerals designate like structural elements. Embodiments are illustrated by way of example, not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings.

FIGS. 1-3 are cross-sectional views of a quantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 4-6 are cross-sectional views of another quantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 7-9 are cross-sectional views of example quantum well stacks and substrates that may be used in a quantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 10-16 illustrate example base/fin arrangements that may be used in a quantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 17-19 are cross-sectional views of a quantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 20 illustrates an embodiment of a quantum dot device having multiple trenches arranged in a two-dimensional array, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 21 illustrates an embodiment of a quantum dot device having multiple groups of gates in a single trench on a quantum well stack, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional view of a quantum dot device with multiple interconnect layers, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 23 is a cross-sectional view of a quantum dot device package, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 24 is a flow diagram of an illustrative method of operating a quantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view of an example metal gate arrangement for various quantum devices described herein, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 26 provides a flow chart of a method for fabricating metal gates for various quantum devices described herein, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 27A-27F are cross-sections illustrating various example stages in the manufacture of the metal gates for various quantum devices described herein using the method of FIG. 26, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 28A and 28B are top views of a wafer and dies that may include any of the quantum devices disclosed herein.

FIG. 29 is a cross-sectional side view of a device assembly that may include any of the quantum devices disclosed herein.

FIG. 30 is a block diagram of an example quantum computing device that may include any of the quantum devices disclosed herein, in accordance with various embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Overview

As briefly described above, quantum computing, or quantum information processing, refers to the field of research related to computation systems that use quantum-mechanical phenomena to manipulate data. One example of quantum-mechanical phenomena is the principle of quantum superposition, which asserts that any two or more quantum states can be added together, i.e. superposed, to produce another valid quantum state, and that any quantum state can be represented as a sum of two or more other distinct states. Quantum entanglement is another example of quantum-mechanical phenomena. Entanglement refers to groups of particles being generated or interacting in such a way that the state of one particle becomes intertwined with that of the others. Furthermore, the quantum state of each particle cannot be described independently. Instead, the quantum state is given for the group of entangled particles as a whole. Yet another example of quantum-mechanical phenomena is sometimes described as a “collapse” because it asserts that when we observe (measure) particles, we unavoidably change their properties in that, once observed, the particles cease to be in a state of superposition or entanglement (i.e. by trying to ascertain anything about the particles, we collapse their state).

Put simply, superposition postulates that a given particle can be simultaneously in two states, entanglement postulates that two particles can be related in that they are able to instantly coordinate their states irrespective of the distance between them in space and time, and collapse postulates that when one observes a particle, one unavoidably changes the state of the particle and its' entanglement with other particles. These unique phenomena make manipulation of data in quantum computers significantly different from that of classical computers (i.e. computers that use phenomena of classical physics). Therefore, both the industry and the academics continue to focus on a search for new and improved physical systems whose functionality could approach that expected of theoretically designed qubits.

Physical systems for implementing qubits that have been explored until now include e.g. quantum dot qubits, donor-based qubits, superconducting qubits, single trapped ion qubits, photon polarization qubits, etc. Out of the various physical implementations of qubits, quantum dot qubit devices and donor-based qubit devices may be promising candidates for building a quantum computer. In such qubit devices, metal gates are used for controlling spin states of qubit elements in a qubit device layer, i.e. in an active device layer. For example, in a quantum dot device, metal gates are used for controlling formation of quantum dots in a quantum well stack during operation of the device. Providing metal gates with sufficient control of the dimensions is not an easy task.

Embodiments of the present disclosure provide fabrication techniques for providing metal gates in quantum devices, as well as related quantum devices. For example, in some embodiments, a method of manufacturing a quantum device may include providing a gate dielectric over a qubit device layer (e.g. a quantum well stack if the quantum device is a quantum dot device), providing over the gate dielectric a pattern of non-metallic elements which may be referred to as “gate support elements,” and depositing a gate metal on sidewalls of the gate support elements, e.g. using atomic layer deposition (ALD), to form a plurality of gates of the quantum device. Thus, according to various embodiments of the present disclosure, metal gates of quantum devices are formed by providing sidewall metal spacers over the gate support elements. In some embodiments of the final device, a width of the gate metal along a height of the gate metal may vary less than about 10 percent of an average width of the gate metal, e.g. less than about 8 percent or less than about 5 percent. This level of control over the width of the gate metal elements was not possible to achieve using conventional gate metal deposition techniques. Also characteristic of the use of the fabrication methods describes herein is that, in some embodiments, directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of the gate metal may deviate from a direction/line perpendicular to the qubit device layer by less than about 40 degrees, e.g. by less than about 30 degrees or by less than about 20 degrees.

While some descriptions are provided with reference to quantum dot qubits, at least some teachings of the present disclosure may be applicable to quantum devices implementing any other types of qubits that may employ metal gates as described herein, all of which implementations are within the scope of the present disclosure. For example, metal gates as described herein may be used in donor-based qubit devices.

In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof, and in which is shown, by way of illustration, embodiments that may be practiced. The accompanying drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural or logical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Therefore, the following detailed description is not to be taken in a limiting sense. For convenience, if a collection of drawings designated with different letters are present, e.g. FIGS. 27A-27F, such a collection may be referred to herein without the letters, e.g. as “FIG. 27.””

In the drawings, some schematic illustrations of exemplary structures of various devices and assemblies described herein may be shown with precise right angles and straight lines, but it is to be understood that such schematic illustrations may not reflect real-life process limitations which may cause the features to not look so “ideal” when any of the structures described herein are examined using e.g. scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images or transmission electron microscope (TEM) images. In such images of real structures, possible processing defects could also be visible, such as e.g. not-perfectly straight edges of materials, tapered vias or other openings, inadvertent rounding of corners or variations in thicknesses of different material layers, occasional screw, edge, or combination dislocations within the crystalline region, and/or occasional dislocation defects of single atoms or clusters of atoms. There may be other defects not listed here but that are common within the field of device fabrication.

Various operations may be described as multiple discrete actions or operations in turn in a manner that is most helpful in understanding the claimed subject matter. However, the order of description should not be construed as to imply that these operations are necessarily order dependent. In particular, these operations may not be performed in the order of presentation. Operations described may be performed in a different order from the described embodiment. Various additional operations may be performed, and/or described operations may be omitted in additional embodiments.

For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase “A and/or B” means (A), (B), or (A and B). For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase “A, B, and/or C” means (A), (B), (C), (A and B), (A and C), (B and C), or (A, B, and C). The term “between,” when used with reference to measurement ranges, is inclusive of the ends of the measurement ranges. As used herein, the notation “A/B/C” means (A), (B), and/or (C).

The description uses the phrases “in an embodiment” or “in embodiments,” which may each refer to one or more of the same or different embodiments. Furthermore, the terms “comprising,” “including,” “having,” and the like, as used with respect to embodiments of the present disclosure, are synonymous. The disclosure may use perspective-based descriptions such as “above,” “below,” “top,” “bottom,” and “side”; such descriptions are used to facilitate the discussion and are not intended to restrict the application of disclosed embodiments. Unless otherwise specified, the use of the ordinal adjectives “first,” “second,” and “third,” etc., to describe a common object, merely indicate that different instances of like objects are being referred to, and are not intended to imply that the objects so described must be in a given sequence, either temporally, spatially, in ranking or in any other manner.

The terms “over,” “under,” “between,” and “on” as used herein refer to a relative position of one material layer or component with respect to other layers or components. For example, one layer disposed over or under another layer may be directly in contact with the other layer or may have one or more intervening layers. Moreover, one layer disposed between two layers may be directly in contact with the two layers or may have one or more intervening layers. In contrast, a first layer “on” a second layer is in direct contact with that second layer. Similarly, unless explicitly stated otherwise, one feature disposed between two features may be in direct contact with the adjacent features or may have one or more intervening layers.

In the following detailed description, various aspects of the illustrative implementations will be described using terms commonly employed by those skilled in the art to convey the substance of their work to others skilled in the art. For example, the terms “oxide,” “carbide,” “nitride,” etc. refer to compounds containing, respectively, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, etc. As used herein, a “high-k dielectric” refers to a material having a higher dielectric constant than silicon oxide. As used herein, a “magnet line” refers to a magnetic field-generating structure to influence (e.g., change, reset, scramble, or set) the spin states of quantum dots. One example of a magnet line, as discussed herein, is a conductive pathway that is proximate to an area of quantum dot formation and selectively conductive of a current pulse that generates a magnetic field to influence a spin state of a quantum dot in the area. The terms “substantially,” “close,” “approximately,” “near,” and “about,” generally refer to being within +/−20% of a target value based on the context of a particular value as described herein or as known in the art. Similarly, terms indicating orientation of various elements, such as e.g. “coplanar,” “perpendicular,” “orthogonal,” “parallel,” or any other angle between the elements, generally refer to being within +/−5-20% of a target value based on the context of a particular value as described herein or as known in the art.

While the present disclosure may include references to microwave signals, this is done only because current qubits are designed to work with such signals because the energy in the microwave range is higher than thermal excitations at the temperature that qubits are typically operated at. In addition, techniques for the control and measurement of microwaves are well known. For these reasons, typical frequencies of qubits are in 1-30 GHz, e.g. in 3-10 GHz range, in order to be higher than thermal excitations, but low enough for ease of microwave engineering. However, advantageously, because excitation energy of qubits is controlled by the circuit elements, qubits can be designed to have any frequency. Therefore, in general, qubits could be designed to operate with signals in other ranges of electromagnetic spectrum and embodiments of the present disclosure could be modified accordingly. All of these alternative implementations are within the scope of the present disclosure.

Exemplary Quantum Dot Devices

FIGS. 1-3 are cross-sectional views of a quantum dot device 100, in accordance with various embodiments. In particular, FIG. 2 illustrates the quantum dot device 100 taken along the section A-A of FIG. 1 (while FIG. 1 illustrates the quantum dot device 100 taken along the section C-C of FIG. 2), and FIG. 3 illustrates the quantum dot device 100 taken along the section B-B of FIG. 1 with a number of components not shown to more readily illustrate how the gates 106/108 and the magnet line 121 may be patterned (while FIG. 1 illustrates a quantum dot device 100 taken along the section D-D of FIG. 3). Although FIG. 1 indicates that the cross-section illustrated in FIG. 2 is taken through the fin 104-1, an analogous cross-section taken through the fin 104-2 may be identical, and thus the discussion of FIG. 2 refers generally to the “fin 104.”

The quantum dot device 100 may include a base 102 and multiple fins 104 extending away from the base 102. The base 102 and the fins 104 may include a substrate and a quantum well stack (not shown in FIGS. 1-3, but discussed below with reference to the substrate 144 and the quantum well stack 146), distributed in any of a number of ways between the base 102 and the fins 104. The base 102 may include at least some of the substrate, and the fins 104 may each include a quantum well layer of the quantum well stack (discussed below with reference to the quantum well layer 152). Examples of base/fin arrangements are discussed below with reference to the base fin arrangements 158 of FIGS. 10-16.

Although only two fins, 104-1 and 104-2, are shown in FIGS. 1-3, this is simply for ease of illustration, and more than two fins 104 may be included in the quantum dot device 100. In some embodiments, the total number of fins 104 included in the quantum dot device 100 is an even number, with the fins 104 organized into pairs including one active fin 104 and one read fin 104, as discussed in detail below. When the quantum dot device 100 includes more than two fins 104, the fins 104 may be arranged in pairs in a line (e.g., 2N fins total may be arranged in a 1×2N line, or a 2×N line) or in pairs in a larger array (e.g., 2N fins total may be arranged as a 4×N/2 array, a 6×N/3 array, etc.). The discussion herein will largely focus on a single pair of fins 104 for ease of illustration, but all the teachings of the present disclosure apply to quantum dot devices 100 with more fins 104.

As noted above, each of the fins 104 may include a quantum well layer (not shown in FIGS. 1-3, but discussed below with reference to the quantum well layer 152). The quantum well layer included in the fins 104 may be arranged normal to the z-direction, and may provide a layer in which a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) may form to enable the generation of a quantum dot during operation of the quantum dot device 100, as discussed in further detail below. The quantum well layer itself may provide a geometric constraint on the z-location of quantum dots in the fins 104, and the limited extent of the fins 104 (and therefore the quantum well layer) in the y-direction may provide a geometric constraint on the y-location of quantum dots in the fins 104. To control the x-location of quantum dots in the fins 104, voltages may be applied to gates disposed on the fins 104 to adjust the energy profile along the fins 104 in the x-direction and thereby constrain the x-location of quantum dots within quantum wells (discussed in detail below with reference to the gates 106/108). The dimensions of the fins 104 may take any suitable values. For example, in some embodiments, the fins 104 may each have a width 162 between 5 nanometers and 30 nanometers. In some embodiments, the fins 104 may each have a vertical dimension 164 between 200 nanometers and 400 nanometers (e.g., between 250 nanometers and 350 nanometers, or equal to 300 nanometers).

The fins 104 may be arranged in parallel, as illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 3, and may be spaced apart by an insulating material 128, which may be disposed on opposite faces of the fins 104. The insulating material 128 may be a dielectric material, such as silicon oxide, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, silicon oxynitride, or silicon oxycarbide. For example, in some embodiments, the fins 104 may be spaced apart by a distance 160 between 100 nanometers and 250 nanometers.

Multiple gates may be disposed on each of the fins 104. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2, three gates 106 and two gates 108 are shown as distributed on the top of the fin 104. This particular number of gates is simply illustrative, and any suitable number of gates may be used. Additionally, multiple groups of gates (like the gates illustrated in FIG. 2) may be disposed on the fin 104.

As shown in FIG. 2, the gate 108-1 may be disposed between the gates 106-1 and 106-2, and the gate 108-2 may be disposed between the gates 106-2 and 106-3. Each of the gates 106/108 may include a gate dielectric 114; in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2, the gate dielectric 114 for all of the gates 106/108 is provided by a common layer of gate dielectric material. In other embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 for each of the gates 106/108 may be provided by separate portions of gate dielectric 114. In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may be a multilayer gate dielectric (e.g., with multiple materials used to improve the interface between the fin 104 and the corresponding gate metal). The gate dielectric 114 may be, for example, silicon oxide, aluminum oxide, or a high-k dielectric, such as hafnium oxide. More generally, the gate dielectric 114 may include elements such as hafnium, silicon, oxygen, titanium, tantalum, lanthanum, aluminum, zirconium, barium, strontium, yttrium, lead, scandium, niobium, and zinc. Examples of materials that may be used in the gate dielectric 114 may include, but are not limited to, hafnium oxide, hafnium silicon oxide, lanthanum oxide, lanthanum aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, zirconium silicon oxide, tantalum oxide, titanium oxide, barium strontium titanium oxide, barium titanium oxide, strontium titanium oxide, yttrium oxide, aluminum oxide, tantalum oxide, tantalum silicon oxide, lead scandium tantalum oxide, and lead zinc niobate. In some embodiments, an annealing process may be carried out on the gate dielectric 114 to improve the quality of the gate dielectric 114.

Each of the gates 106 may include a gate metal 110 and a hardmask 116. The hardmask 116 may be formed of silicon nitride, silicon carbide, or another suitable material. The gate metal 110 may be disposed between the hardmask 116 and the gate dielectric 114, and the gate dielectric 114 may be disposed between the gate metal 110 and the fin 104. Only one portion of the hardmask 116 is labeled in FIG. 2 for ease of illustration. In some embodiments, the gate metal 110 may be a superconductor, such as aluminum, titanium nitride, or niobium titanium nitride. In some embodiments, the hardmask 116 may not be present in the quantum dot device 100 (e.g., a hardmask like the hardmask 116 may be removed during processing). The sides of the gate metal 110 may be substantially parallel, as shown in FIG. 2. In some embodiments, an insulating material 130 may be provided on the sides of the gate metal 110, and possibly on the sides of the hardmask 116, in order to provide electrical isolation from other electrically conductive elements, e.g. from the gate metals 112. The insulating material 130 may be any suitable material, such as an interlayer dielectric (ILD). Examples of the insulating material 130 may include silicon oxide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, carbon-doped oxide, or/and other carbides or nitrides (e.g., silicon carbide, silicon nitride doped with carbon, and silicon oxynitride). In other embodiments, the gate metal 110 may be separated from the adjacent gate metals 112 by gaps, e.g. air gaps. The gate metal 110 may be any suitable metal, such as titanium nitride.

Each of the gates 108 may include a gate metal 112 and a hardmask 118. The hardmask 118 may be formed of silicon nitride, silicon carbide, or another suitable material. The gate metal 112 may be disposed between the hardmask 118 and the gate dielectric 114, and the gate dielectric 114 may be disposed between the gate metal 112 and the fin 104. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2, the hardmask 118 may extend over the hardmask 116 (and over the gate metal 110 of the gates 106), while in other embodiments, the hardmask 118 may not extend over the gate metal 110 (e.g., as discussed below with reference to FIG. 15). In some embodiments, the gate metal 112 may be a different metal from the gate metal 110; in other embodiments, the gate metal 112 and the gate metal 110 may have the same material composition. In some embodiments, the gate metal 112 may be a superconductor, such as aluminum, titanium nitride, or niobium titanium nitride. In some embodiments, the hardmask 118 may not be present in the quantum dot device 100 (e.g., a hardmask like the hardmask 118 may be removed during processing).

The sides of the gate metal 112 may be substantially parallel, as shown in FIG. 2. In some embodiments, the gate metal 112 of the gate 108-1 may extend between the insulating material 130 or gaps between the sides of the gate 106-1 and the gate 106-2. Similarly, the gate 108-2 may extend between the insulating material 130 or gaps between the sides of the gate 106-2 and the gate 106-3. The gate metal 112, like the gate metal 110, may be any suitable metal, such as titanium nitride.

The dimensions of the gates 106/108 may take any suitable values. For example, in some embodiments, the z-height 166 of the gate metal 110 may be between 40 nanometers and 75 nanometers (e.g., approximately 50 nanometers); the z-height of the gate metal 112 may be in the same range. In embodiments like the ones illustrated in FIG. 2, the z-height of the gate metal 112 may be greater than the z-height of the gate metal 110. In some embodiments, the width 168 of the gate metal 110 (i.e., in the x-direction) may be between 3 nanometers and 75 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. between about 3 and 35 nanometers, between about 7 and 25 nanometers, or between about 8 and 20 nanometers. In some embodiments, the distance 170 between adjacent ones of the gates 106 (e.g., as measured from the gate metal 110 of one gate 106 to the gate metal 110 of an adjacent gate 106 in the x-direction, as illustrated in FIG. 2) may be between 5 nanometers and 60 nanometers (e.g., 50 nanometers). As indicated in FIG. 1, the gates 106/108 on one fin 104 may extend over the insulating material 128 beyond their respective fins 104 and towards the other fin 104, but may be isolated from their counterpart gates by the intervening insulating material 130.

Although all of the gates 106 are illustrated in the accompanying drawings as having the same width 168 of the gate metal 110, in some embodiments, the “outermost” gates 106 (e.g., the gates 106-1 and 106-3 of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2) may have a greater width 168 than the “inner” gates 106 (e.g., the gate 106-2 in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2). Such longer “outside” gates 106 may provide spatial separation between the doped regions 140 and the areas under the gates 108 and the inner gates 106 in which quantum dots 142 may form, and thus may reduce the perturbations to the potential energy landscape under the gates 108 and the inner gates 106 caused by the doped regions 140.

The gate metals 110 and 112 may be provided using the sidewall metal spacer fabrication methods described below. As a result, metal grains of the gate metals 110 and 112 may be aligned to be substantially perpendicular to the base 102. In some embodiments, directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of the gate metals 110 and 112 may deviate from a line perpendicular to the base 102 by less than about 40 degrees, e.g. by less than about 30 degrees or by less than about 20 degrees. In some embodiments, the gate metals 110 and 112 may have a width (i.e., in the x-direction) below about 10 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. below about 5 nanometers. In some embodiments, the gate metals 110 and 112 may have an aspect ratio (i.e. a ratio of height of the gate metal to the width of the gate metal) above about 3, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. above about 5 or above about 10. In some embodiments of the gate metals 110 and 112, a width of the gate metal along a height of the gate metal varies less than about 10 percent of an average width of the gate metal, e.g. less than about 8 percent or less than about 5 percent. This level of control over the width of the gate metal elements was not possible to achieve using conventional gate metal deposition techniques.

As shown in FIG. 2, the gates 106 and 108 may be alternatingly arranged along the fin 104 in the x-direction. During operation of the quantum dot device 100, voltages may be applied to the gates 106/108 to adjust the potential energy in the quantum well layer (not shown) in the fin 104 to create quantum wells of varying depths in which quantum dots 142 may form. Only one quantum dot 142 is labeled with a reference numeral in FIGS. 2 and 3 for ease of illustration, but five are indicated as dotted circles in each fin 104. The location of the quantum dots 142 in FIG. 2 is not intended to indicate a particular geometric positioning of the quantum dots 142. The insulating material 130 or gaps in between adjacent gate metals 110/112 may themselves provide “passive” barriers between quantum wells under the gates 106/108 in the quantum well layer, and the voltages applied to different ones of the gates 106/108 may adjust the potential energy under the gates 106/108 in the quantum well layer; decreasing the potential energy may form quantum wells, while increasing the potential energy may form quantum barriers.

The fins 104 may include doped regions 140 that may serve as a reservoir of charge carriers for the quantum dot device 100. For example, an n-type doped region 140 may supply electrons for electron-type quantum dots 142, and a p-type doped region 140 may supply holes for hole-type quantum dots 142. In some embodiments, an interface material 141 may be disposed at a surface of a doped region 140, as shown. The interface material 141 may facilitate electrical coupling between a conductive contact (e.g., a conductive via 136, as discussed below) and the doped region 140. The interface material 141 may be any suitable metal-semiconductor ohmic contact material; for example, in embodiments in which the doped region 140 includes silicon, the interface material 141 may include nickel silicide, aluminum silicide, titanium silicide, molybdenum silicide, cobalt silicide, tungsten silicide, or platinum silicide. In some embodiments, the interface material 141 may be a non-silicide compound, such as titanium nitride. In some embodiments, the interface material 141 may be a metal (e.g., aluminum, tungsten, or indium).

The quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein may be used to form electron-type or hole-type quantum dots 142. Note that the polarity of the voltages applied to the gates 106/108 to form quantum wells/barriers depend on the charge carriers used in the quantum dot device 100. In embodiments in which the charge carriers are electrons (and thus the quantum dots 142 are electron-type quantum dots), amply negative voltages applied to a gate 106/108 may increase the potential barrier under the gate 106/108, and amply positive voltages applied to a gate 106/108 may decrease the potential barrier under the gate 106/108 (thereby forming a potential well in which an electron-type quantum dot 142 may form). In embodiments in which the charge carriers are holes (and thus the quantum dots 142 are hole-type quantum dots), amply positive voltages applied to a gate 106/108 may increase the potential barrier under the gate 106/108, and amply negative voltages applied to a gate 106 and 108 may decrease the potential barrier under the gate 106/108 (thereby forming a potential well in which a hole-type quantum dot 142 may form). The quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein may be used to form electron-type or hole-type quantum dots.

Voltages may be applied to each of the gates 106 and 108 separately to adjust the potential energy in the quantum well layer under the gates 106 and 108, and thereby control the formation of quantum dots 142 under each of the gates 106 and 108. Additionally, the relative potential energy profiles under different ones of the gates 106 and 108 allow the quantum dot device 100 to tune the potential interaction between quantum dots 142 under adjacent gates. For example, if two adjacent quantum dots 142 (e.g., one quantum dot 142 under a gate 106 and another quantum dot 142 under a gate 108) are separated by only a short potential barrier, the two quantum dots 142 may interact more strongly than if they were separated by a taller potential barrier. Since the depth of the potential wells/height of the potential barriers under each gate 106/108 may be adjusted by adjusting the voltages on the respective gates 106/108, the differences in potential between adjacent gates 106/108 may be adjusted, and thus the interaction tuned.

In some applications, the gates 108 may be used as plunger gates to enable the formation of quantum dots 142 under the gates 108, while the gates 106 may be used as barrier gates to adjust the potential barrier between quantum dots 142 formed under adjacent gates 108. In other applications, the gates 108 may be used as barrier gates, while the gates 106 are used as plunger gates. In other applications, quantum dots 142 may be formed under all of the gates 106 and 108, or under any desired subset of the gates 106 and 108.

Conductive vias and lines may make contact with the gates 106/108, and to the doped regions 140, to enable electrical connection to the gates 106/108 and the doped regions 140 to be made in desired locations. As shown in FIGS. 1-3, the gates 106 may extend away from the fins 104, and conductive vias 120 may contact the gates 106 (and are drawn in dashed lines in FIG. 2 to indicate their location behind the plane of the drawing). The conductive vias 120 may extend through the hardmask 116 and the hardmask 118 to contact the gate metal 110 of the gates 106. The gates 108 may extend away from the fins 104, and conductive vias 122 may contact the gates 108 (also drawn in dashed lines in FIG. 2 to indicate their location behind the plane of the drawing). The conductive vias 122 may extend through the hardmask 118 to contact the gate metal 112 of the gates 108. Conductive vias 136 may contact the interface material 141 and may thereby make electrical contact with the doped regions 140. The quantum dot device 100 may include further conductive vias and/or lines (not shown) to make electrical contact to the gates 106/108 and/or the doped regions 140, as desired. The conductive vias and lines included in a quantum dot device 100 may include any suitable materials, such as copper, tungsten (deposited, e.g., by chemical vapor deposition (CVD)), or a superconductor (e.g., aluminum, tin, titanium nitride, niobium titanium nitride, tantalum, niobium, or other niobium compounds such as niobium tin and niobium germanium).

During operation, a bias voltage may be applied to the doped regions 140 (e.g., via the conductive vias 136 and the interface material 141) to cause current to flow through the doped regions 140. When the doped regions 140 are doped with an n-type material, this voltage may be positive; when the doped regions 140 are doped with a p-type material, this voltage may be negative. The magnitude of this bias voltage may take any suitable value (e.g., between 0.25 volts and 2 volts).

The quantum dot device 100 may include one or more magnet lines 121. For example, a single magnet line 121 is illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 proximate to the fin 104-1. The magnet line 121 may be formed of a conductive material, and may be used to conduct current pulses that generate magnetic fields to influence the spin states of one or more of the quantum dots 142 that may form in the fins 104. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may conduct a pulse to reset (or “scramble”) nuclear and/or quantum dot spins. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may conduct a pulse to initialize an electron in a quantum dot in a particular spin state. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may conduct current to provide a continuous, oscillating magnetic field to which the spin of a qubit may couple. The magnet line 121 may provide any suitable combination of these embodiments, or any other appropriate functionality.

In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may be formed of copper. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may be formed of a superconductor, such as aluminum. The magnet line 121 illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 is non-coplanar with the fins 104, and is also non-coplanar with the gates 106/108. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may be spaced apart from the gates 106/108 by a distance 167. The distance 167 may take any suitable value (e.g., based on the desired strength of magnetic field interaction with the quantum dots 142); in some embodiments, the distance 167 may be between 25 nanometers and 1 micron (e.g., between 50 nanometers and 200 nanometers).

In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may be formed of a magnetic material. For example, a magnetic material (such as cobalt) may be deposited in a trench in the insulating material 130 to provide a permanent magnetic field in the quantum dot device 100.

The magnet line 121 may have any suitable dimensions. For example, the magnet line 121 may have a thickness 169 between 25 nanometers and 100 nanometers. The magnet line 121 may have a width 171 between 25 nanometers and 100 nanometers. In some embodiments, the width 171 and thickness 169 of a magnet line 121 may be equal to the width and thickness, respectively, of other conductive lines in the quantum dot device 100 (not shown) used to provide electrical interconnects, as known in the art. The magnet line 121 may have a length 173 that may depend on the number and dimensions of the gates 106/108 that are to form quantum dots 142 with which the magnet line 121 is to interact. The magnet line 121 illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 (and the magnet lines 121 illustrated in FIGS. 4-6 below) are substantially linear, but this need not be the case; the magnet lines 121 disclosed herein may take any suitable shape. Conductive vias 123 may contact the magnet line 121.

The conductive vias 120, 122, 136, and 123 may be electrically isolated from each other by the insulating material 130 as described above. As known in the art of integrated circuit manufacturing, conductive vias and lines may be formed in an iterative process in which layers of structures are formed on top of each other. In some embodiments, the conductive vias 120/122/136/123 may have a width that is 20 nanometers or greater at their widest point (e.g., 30 nanometers), and a pitch of 80 nanometers or greater (e.g., 100 nanometers). In some embodiments, conductive lines (not shown) included in the quantum dot device 100 may have a width that is 100 nanometers or greater, and a pitch of 100 nanometers or greater. The particular arrangement of conductive vias shown in FIGS. 1-3 is simply illustrative, and any electrical routing arrangement may be implemented.

As discussed above, the structure of the fin 104-1 may be the same as the structure of the fin 104-2; similarly, the construction of gates 106/108 on the fin 104-1 may be the same as the construction of gates 106/108 on the fin 104-2. The gates 106/108 on the fin 104-1 may be mirrored by corresponding gates 106/108 on the parallel fin 104-2, and the insulating material 130 may separate the gates 106/108 on the different fins 104-1 and 104-2. In particular, quantum dots 142 formed in the fin 104-1 (under the gates 106/108) may have counterpart quantum dots 142 in the fin 104-2 (under the corresponding gates 106/108). In some embodiments, the quantum dots 142 in the fin 104-1 may be used as “active” quantum dots in the sense that these quantum dots 142 act as qubits and are controlled (e.g., by voltages applied to the gates 106/108 of the fin 104-1) to perform quantum computations. The quantum dots 142 in the fin 104-2 may be used as “read” quantum dots in the sense that these quantum dots 142 may sense the quantum state of the quantum dots 142 in the fin 104-1 by detecting the electric field generated by the charge in the quantum dots 142 in the fin 104-1, and may convert the quantum state of the quantum dots 142 in the fin 104-1 into electrical signals that may be detected by the gates 106/108 on the fin 104-2. Each quantum dot 142 in the fin 104-1 may be read by its corresponding quantum dot 142 in the fin 104-2. Thus, the quantum dot device 100 enables both quantum computation and the ability to read the results of a quantum computation.

In the embodiment of the quantum dot device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1-3, the magnet line 121 is oriented parallel to the longitudinal axes of the fins 104. In other embodiments, the magnet line 121 may not be oriented parallel to the longitudinal axes of the fins 104. For example, FIGS. 4-6 are various cross-sectional views of an embodiment of a quantum dot device 100 having multiple magnet lines 121, each proximate to the fins 104 and oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axes of the fins 104. Other than orientation, the magnet lines 121 of the embodiment of FIGS. 4-6 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the magnet line 121 discussed above. The other elements of the quantum dot devices 100 of FIGS. 4-6 may take the form of any of those elements discussed herein.

Although a single magnet line 121 is illustrated in FIGS. 1-3, multiple magnet lines 121 may be included in that embodiment of the quantum dot device 100 (e.g., multiple magnet lines 121 parallel to the longitudinal axes of the fins 104). For example, the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 1-3 may include a second magnet line 121 proximate to the fin 104-2 in a symmetric manner to the magnet line 121 illustrated proximate to the fin 104-1. In some embodiments, multiple magnet lines 121 may be included in a quantum dot device 100, and these magnet lines 121 may or may not be parallel to one another. For example, in some embodiments, a quantum dot device 100 may include two (or more) magnet lines 121 that are oriented perpendicular to each other (e.g., one or more magnet lines 121 oriented like those illustrated in FIGS. 1-3, and one or more magnet lines 121 oriented like those illustrated in FIGS. 4-6).

As discussed above, the base 102 and the fin 104 of a quantum dot device 100 may be formed from a substrate 144 and a quantum well stack 146 disposed on the substrate 144. The quantum well stack 146 may include a quantum well layer in which a 2DEG may form during operation of the quantum dot device 100. The quantum well stack 146 may take any of a number of forms, several of which are discussed below with reference to FIGS. 7-9. The various layers in the quantum well stacks 146 discussed below may be grown on the substrate 144 (e.g., using molecular beam epitaxy, chemical vapor deposition, or atomic layer deposition). Although the singular term “layer” may be used to refer to various components of the quantum well stack 146 of FIGS. 7-9, any of the layers discussed below may include multiple materials arranged in any suitable manner. Layers other than the quantum well layer 152 in a quantum well stack 146 may have higher threshold voltages for conduction than the quantum well layer 152 so that when the quantum well layer 152 are biased at their threshold voltages, the quantum well layer 152 conducts and the other layers of the quantum well stack 146 do not. This may avoid parallel conduction in both the quantum well layer 152 and the other layers, and thus avoid compromising the strong mobility of the quantum well layer 152 with conduction in layers having inferior mobility.

FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view of a quantum well stack 146 on a substrate 144, and a gate dielectric 114 on the quantum well stack 146. The quantum well stack 146 may include a buffer layer 154 on the substrate 144, and a quantum well layer 152 on the buffer layer 154. In the embodiment of FIG. 7, the gate dielectric 114 may be directly on the quantum well layer 152. The quantum well layer 152 may be formed of a material such that, during operation of the quantum dot device 100, a 2DEG may form in the quantum well layer 152 proximate to the upper surface of the quantum well layer 152. As shown, the gate dielectric 114 may be disposed on the upper surface of the quantum well layer 152.

The quantum well layer 152 of the quantum well stacks 146 disclosed herein may include an isotopically purified material. As used herein, an “isotopically purified material” is a material whose composition of isotopes with nonzero nuclear spin is less than the natural abundance of those isotopes in the material. In other words, an isotopically purified material may include a lower atomic-percent of isotopes with nonzero nuclear spin than the natural abundance of those isotopies in the non-isotopically purified material. Isotopes with nonzero nuclear spin may cause a reduction of the electron spin coherence time in a quantum dot device 100 due to hyperfine coupling of the electron spin to the nuclear spin bath and intrinsic interactions between nuclear spins; reducing the presence of these isotopes in a quantum well layer 152 (and/or other layers in a quantum well stack 146) may improve qubit coherence and thus performance. The isotopically purified materials disclosed herein may be grown by centrifuging a precursor material to isolate different isotopes by mass, and then using only the desired isotopes as precursors for growth of the desired material. In some embodiments of the quantum well stacks 146 disclosed herein, an isotopically purified material (e.g., zinc, cadmium, tellurium, selenium, sulfur, iron, lead, tin, carbon, germanium, silicon, hafnium, zirconium, titanium, strontium, or yttrium, as discussed below) may include greater than 90 atomic-percent of stable isotopes with zero nuclear spin (and less than 10 atomic-percent of isotopes with nonzero nuclear spin).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include or be formed of silicon. The silicon may be an isotopically purified silicon, having a lower 29Si content than the natural abundance of 29Si in silicon. For example, in some embodiments, the silicon included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 29Si content that is less than 4 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 3 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, less than 1 atomic-percent, or less than 0.1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the silicon included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 28Si content that is greater than 93 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 94 atomic-percent, greater than 95 atomic-percent, greater than 96 atomic-percent, greater than 97 atomic-percent, greater than 98 atomic-percent, or greater than 99 atomic-percent). Embodiments in which the quantum well layer 152 is formed of intrinsic silicon may be particularly advantageous for electron-type quantum dot devices 100.

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include or be formed of germanium. The germanium may be an isotopically purified germanium, having a lower 73Ge content than the natural abundance of 73Ge in silicon. For example, in some embodiments, the germanium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 73Ge content that is less than 7 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 6 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, less than 4 atomic-percent, less than 3 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the germanium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 70Ge content that is greater than 21 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the germanium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 72Ge content that is greater than 28 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the germanium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 74Ge content that is greater than 37 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the germanium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 76Ge content that is greater than 8 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). Embodiments in which the quantum well layer 152 is formed of intrinsic germanium may be particularly advantageous for hole-type quantum dot devices 100. In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 may include isotopically purified silicon and isotopically purified germanium (e.g., silicon germanium grown from isotopically purified silicon and isotopically purified germanium precursors).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified zinc. For example, in some embodiments, the zinc included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 67Zn content that is less than 4 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 3 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the zinc included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 64Zn content that is greater than 50 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the zinc included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 66Zn content that is greater than 28 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified cadmium. For example, in some embodiments, the cadmium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 111Cd content that is less than 12 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the cadmium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 113Cd content that is less than 12 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the cadmium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 114Cd content that is greater than 29 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified tellurium. For example, in some embodiments, the tellurium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 123Te content that is less than 0.9 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 0.5 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the tellurium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 125Te content that is less than 7 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 5 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the tellurium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a Te128 content that is greater than 32 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the tellurium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a Te130 content that is greater than 35 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified selenium. For example, in some embodiments, the selenium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 77Se content that is less than 7 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 5 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the selenium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 78Se content that is greater than 24 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the selenium included in a quantum well layer 152 may have an 80Se content that is greater than 50 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified sulfur. For example, in some embodiments, the sulfur included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 33S content that is less than 0.8 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 0.5 atomic-percent, less than 0.2 atomic-percent, or less than 0.1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the sulfur included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 32S content that is greater than 95 atomic-percent.

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified iron. For example, in some embodiments, the iron included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 57Fe content that is less than 2 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 1 atomic-percent, or less than 0.5 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the iron included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 56Fe content that is greater than 92 atomic-percent.

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified lead. For example, in some embodiments, the lead included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 207Pb content that is less than 22 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the lead included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 208Pb content that is greater than 53 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified tin. For example, in some embodiments, the tin included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 119Sn content that is less than 8 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 5 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the tin included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 117Sn content that is less than 7 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 5 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the tin included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 115Sn content that is less than 0.3 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 0.2 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the tin included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 120Sn content that is greater than 33 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the tin included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 118Sn content that is greater than 25 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 of a quantum well stack 146 may include isotopically purified carbon. For example, in some embodiments, the carbon included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 13C content that is less than 1 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 0.5 atomic-percent, or less than 0.2 atomic-percent. In some embodiments, the carbon included in a quantum well layer 152 may have a 12C content that is greater than 99 atomic-percent.

In some embodiments, material layers that are adjacent or proximate to the quantum well layer 152 (e.g., other layers in a quantum well stack 146 or outside the quantum well stack 146) may also include an isotopically purified material to reduce electron spin dephasing in the quantum well layer 152 induced by nuclear spins outside the quantum well layer 152.

In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 (e.g., the gate dielectric 114 of FIG. 7) may include an isotopically purified material. For example, the gate dielectric 114 may include isotopically purified silicon (e.g., in accordance with any of the embodiments discussed above). In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include oxygen and isotopically purified silicon (e.g., as silicon oxide). In another example, the gate dielectric 114 may include isotopically purified germanium (e.g., in accordance with any of the embodiments discussed above). In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include oxygen and isotopically purified germanium (e.g., as germanium oxide).

In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include isotopically purified hafnium. For example, the hafnium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 177Hf content that is less than 18 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the hafnium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 179Hf content that is less than 13 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the hafnium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 178Hf content that is greater than 28 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the hafnium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 180Hf content that is greater than 36 atomic-percent. In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include oxygen and isotopically purified hafnium (e.g., as hafnium oxide) (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include isotopically purified zirconium. For example, the zirconium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 91Zr content that is less than 11 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the zirconium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 90Zr content that is greater than 52 atomic-percent. In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include oxygen and isotopically purified zirconium (e.g., as zirconium oxide).

In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include isotopically purified titanium. For example, the titanium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 47Ti content that is less than 7 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 5 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the titanium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 49Ti content that is less than 5 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the titanium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 48Ti content that is greater than 74 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include oxygen and isotopically purified titanium (e.g., as titanium oxide).

In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include isotopically purified strontium. For example, the strontium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have an 87Sr content that is less than 7 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 5 atomic-percent, less than 2 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the strontium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 88Sr content that is greater than 83 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include oxygen and isotopically purified strontium (e.g., as strontium oxide).

In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include isotopically purified yttrium. For example, the yttrium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 171Y content that is less than 14 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the yttrium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 173Y content that is less than 16 atomic-percent (e.g., less than 10 atomic-percent, less than 5 atomic-percent, or less than 1 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the yttrium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 174Y content that is greater than 32 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the yttrium included in a gate dielectric 114 may have a 172Y content that is greater than 22 atomic-percent (e.g., greater than 90 atomic-percent). In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may include oxygen and isotopically purified yttrium (e.g., as yttrium oxide).

The buffer layer 154 may be formed of the same material as the quantum well layer 152, and may be present to trap defects that form in this material as it is grown on the substrate 144. In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 may be formed of isotopically purified silicon, and the buffer layer 154 may be formed of intrinsic silicon. In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 may be formed of isotopically purified germanium, and the buffer layer 154 may be formed of intrinsic germanium. In some embodiments, the buffer layer 154 may be grown under different conditions (e.g., deposition temperature or growth rate) from the quantum well layer 152. In particular, the quantum well layer 152 may be grown under conditions that achieve fewer defects than in the buffer layer 154. In some embodiments in which the buffer layer 154 includes silicon germanium, the silicon germanium of the buffer layer 154 may have a germanium content that varies from the substrate 144 to the quantum well layer 152; for example, the silicon germanium of the buffer layer 154 may have a germanium content that varies from zero percent at the substrate to a nonzero percent (e.g., 30 atomic-percent) at the quantum well layer 152.

As noted above, it may be advantageous for materials that are adjacent or proximate to the quantum well layer 152 to include isotopically purified materials to reduce electron spin dephasing. Thus, in some embodiments, at least the upper portion of the buffer layer 154 (e.g., the upper 50 nanometers to 100 nanometers of the buffer layer 154) may include an isotopically purified material (e.g., isotopically purified silicon or germanium).

FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of an arrangement including a substrate 144, a quantum well stack 146, and a gate dielectric 114. The quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 8 may include a buffer layer 154, a barrier layer 156-1, a quantum well layer 152, and an additional barrier layer 156-2. The barrier layer 156-1 (156-2) may provide a potential barrier between the quantum well layer 152 and the buffer layer 154 (gate dielectric 114). In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the barrier layers 156 may include an isotopically purified material, such as any of the materials discussed above with reference to the quantum well layer 152. For example, the portions of the barrier layers 156 adjacent to the quantum well layer 152 (e.g., the 25 nanometers to 100 nanometers of the barrier layers 156 closest to the quantum well layer 152) may include an isotopically purified material (while the remainder of the barrier layers 156 may or may not include an isotopically purified material). In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the buffer layer 154 and/or the gate dielectric 114 may or may not include an isotopically purified material; more generally, the buffer layer 154 and/or the gate dielectric 114 of FIG. 8 may take the form of any suitable ones of the embodiments disclosed herein. In some embodiments in which the quantum well layer 152 includes silicon or germanium, the barrier layers 156 may include silicon germanium (e.g., isotopically purified silicon and isotopically purified germanium). The germanium content of this silicon germanium may be between 20 atomic-percent and 80 atomic-percent (e.g., between 30 atomic-percent and 70 atomic-percent).

In some embodiments of the arrangement of FIG. 8, the buffer layer 154 and the barrier layer 156-1 may be formed of silicon germanium. In some such embodiments, the silicon germanium of the buffer layer 154 may have a germanium content that varies from the substrate 144 to the barrier layer 156-1; for example, the silicon germanium of the buffer layer 154 may have a germanium content that varies from zero percent at the substrate to a nonzero percent (e.g., between 30 atomic-percent and 70 atomic-percent) at the barrier layer 156-1. The barrier layer 156-1 may in turn have a germanium content equal to the nonzero percent. In other embodiments, the buffer layer 154 may have a germanium content equal to the germanium content of the barrier layer 156-1 but may be thicker than the barrier layer 156-1 to absorb the defects that arise during growth. In some embodiments of the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 8, the barrier layer 156-2 may be omitted.

FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of another example quantum well stack 146 on an example substrate 144, with a gate dielectric 114 on the quantum well stack 146. The quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 10 may include an insulating layer 155 on the substrate 144, a quantum well layer 152 on the insulating layer 155, and a barrier layer 156 on the quantum well layer 152. The presence of the insulating layer 155 may help confine carriers to the quantum well layer 152, providing high valley splitting during operation.

The insulating layer 155 may include any suitable electrically insulating material. For example, in some embodiments, the insulating layer 155 may be an oxide (e.g., silicon oxide or hafnium oxide). In some embodiments, to improve qubit coherence in the quantum well layer 152, the insulating layer 155 may include an isotopically purified material (e.g., any of the materials discussed above with reference to the gate dielectric 114). The substrate 144, the quantum well layer 152, and the barrier layer 156 of FIG. 9 may take the form of any of the embodiments disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the quantum well layer 152 may be formed on the insulating layer 155 by a layer transfer technique. In some embodiments, the barrier layer 156 may be omitted from the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 9.

The thicknesses (i.e., z-heights) of the layers in the quantum well stacks 146 of FIGS. 7-9 may take any suitable values. For example, in some embodiments, the thickness of the quantum well layer 152 may be between 5 nanometers and 15 nanometers (e.g., approximately equal to 10 nanometers). In some embodiments, the thickness of a buffer layer 154 may be between 0.3 microns and 4 microns (e.g., between 0.3 microns and 2 microns, or approximately 0.5 microns). In some embodiments, the thickness of the barrier layers 156 may be between 0 nanometers and 300 nanometers. In some embodiments, the thickness of the insulating layer 155 in the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 10 may be between 5 nanometers and 200 nanometers.

The substrate 144 and the quantum well stack 146 may be distributed between the base 102 and the fins 104 of the quantum dot device 100, as discussed above. This distribution may occur in any of a number of ways. For example, FIGS. 10-16 illustrate example base/fin arrangements 158 that may be used in a quantum dot device 100, in accordance with various embodiments.

In the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 10, the quantum well stack 146 may be included in the fins 104, but not in the base 102. The substrate 144 may be included in the base 102, but not in the fins 104. When the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 10 is used, during manufacturing, the fin etching may etch through the quantum well stack 146, and stop when the substrate 144 is reached.

In the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 11, the quantum well stack 146 may be included in the fins 104, as well as in a portion of the base 102. A substrate 144 may be included in the base 102 as well, but not in the fins 104. When the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 11 is used, during manufacturing, the fin etching may etch partially through the quantum well stack 146, and stop before the substrate 144 is reached. FIG. 12 illustrates a particular embodiment of the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 11. In the embodiment of FIG. 12, the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 7 is used; the base 102 includes the substrate 144 and a portion of the buffer layer 154 of the quantum well stack 146, while the fins 104 include the remainder of the quantum well stack 146.

In the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 13, the quantum well stack 146 may be included in the fins 104, but not the base 102. The substrate 144 may be partially included in the fins 104, as well as in the base 102. When the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 13 is used, during manufacturing, the fin etching may etch through the quantum well stack 146 and into the substrate 144 before stopping. FIG. 14 illustrates a particular embodiment of the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 13. In the embodiment of FIG. 14, the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 10 is used; the fins 104 include the quantum well stack 146 and a portion of the substrate 144, while the base 102 includes the remainder of the substrate 144.

Although the fins 104 have been illustrated in many of the preceding figures as substantially rectangular with parallel sidewalls, this is simply for ease of illustration, and the fins 104 may have any suitable shape (e.g., shape appropriate to the manufacturing processes used to form the fins 104). For example, as illustrated in the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 15, in some embodiments, the fins 104 may be tapered. In some embodiments, the fins 104 may taper by 3 nanometers to 10 nanometers in x-width for every 100 nanometers in z-height (e.g., 5 nanometers in x-width for every 100 nanometers in z-height). When the fins 104 are tapered, the wider end of the fins 104 may be the end closest to the base 102, as illustrated in FIG. 15. FIG. 16 illustrates a particular embodiment of the base/fin arrangement 158 of FIG. 4. In FIG. 16, the quantum well stack 146 is included in the tapered fins 104 while a portion of the substrate 144 is included in the tapered fins and a portion of the substrate 144 provides the base 102.

FIGS. 17-19 are cross-sectional views of another embodiment of a quantum dot device 100, in accordance with various embodiments. In particular, FIG. 18 illustrates the quantum dot device 100 taken along the section A-A of FIG. 17 (while FIG. 17 illustrates the quantum dot device 100 taken along the section C-C of FIG. 18), and FIG. 19 illustrates the quantum dot device 100 taken along the section D-D of FIG. 18 (while FIG. 18 illustrates the quantum dot device 100 taken along the section A-A of FIG. 19). The quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19, taken along the section B-B of FIG. 17, may be the same as illustrated in FIG. 3. Although FIG. 17 indicates that the cross-section illustrated in FIG. 18 is taken through the trench 107-1, an analogous cross-section taken through the trench 107-2 may be identical, and thus the discussion of FIG. 18 refers generally to the “trench 107.”

The quantum dot device 100 may include a quantum well stack 146 disposed on a base 102. An insulating material 128 may be disposed above the quantum well stack 146, and multiple trenches 107 in the insulating material 128 may extend towards the quantum well stack 146. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 17-19, a gate dielectric 114 may be disposed between the quantum well stack 146 and the insulating material 128 so as to provide the “bottom” of the trenches 107. The quantum well stack 146 of the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19 may take the form of any of the quantum well stacks disclosed herein (e.g., as discussed above with reference to FIGS. 7-9). The various layers in the quantum well stack 146 of FIGS. 17-19 may be grown on the base 102 (e.g., using epitaxial processes).

Although only two trenches, 107-1 and 107-2, are shown in FIGS. 17-19, this is simply for ease of illustration, and more than two trenches 107 may be included in the quantum dot device 100. In some embodiments, the total number of trenches 107 included in the quantum dot device 100 is an even number, with the trenches 107 organized into pairs including one active trench 107 and one read trench 107, as discussed in detail below. When the quantum dot device 100 includes more than two trenches 107, the trenches 107 may be arranged in pairs in a line (e.g., 2N trenches total may be arranged in a 1×2N line, or a 2×N line) or in pairs in a larger array (e.g., 2N trenches total may be arranged as a 4×N/2 array, a 6×N/3 array, etc.). For example, FIG. 21 illustrates a quantum dot device 100 including an example two-dimensional array of trenches 107. As illustrated in FIGS. 17 and 19, in some embodiments, multiple trenches 107 may be oriented in parallel. The discussion herein will largely focus on a single pair of trenches 107 for ease of illustration, but all the teachings of the present disclosure apply to quantum dot devices 100 with more trenches 107.

As discussed above with reference to FIGS. 1-3, in the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19, a quantum well layer itself may provide a geometric constraint on the z-location of quantum dots in the quantum well stack 146. To control the x- and y-location of quantum dots in the quantum well stack 146, voltages may be applied to gates disposed at least partially in the trenches 107 above the quantum well stack 146 to adjust the energy profile along the trenches 107 in the x- and y-direction and thereby constrain the x- and y-location of quantum dots within quantum wells (discussed in detail below with reference to the gates 106/108). The dimensions of the trenches 107 may take any suitable values. For example, in some embodiments, the trenches 107 may each have a width 162 between 10 nanometers and 30 nanometers. In some embodiments, the trenches 107 may each have a vertical dimension 164 between 200 nanometers and 400 nanometers (e.g., between 250 nanometers and 350 nanometers, or equal to 300 nanometers). The insulating material 128 may be a dielectric material (e.g., an interlayer dielectric), such as silicon oxide. In some embodiments, the insulating material 128 may be a CVD or flowable CVD oxide. In some embodiments, the trenches 107 may be spaced apart by a distance 160 between 50 nanometers and 500 nanometers.

Multiple gates may be disposed at least partially in each of the trenches 107. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 18, three gates 106 and two gates 108 are shown as distributed at least partially in a single trench 107. This particular number of gates is simply illustrative, and any suitable number of gates may be used. Additionally, in some embodiments, multiple groups of gates (like the gates illustrated in FIG. 18) may be disposed at least partially in the trench 107.

As shown in FIG. 18, the gate 108-1 may be disposed between the gates 106-1 and 106-2, and the gate 108-2 may be disposed between the gates 106-2 and 106-3. Each of the gates 106/108 may include a gate dielectric 114; in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 18, the gate dielectric 114 for all of the gates 106/108 is provided by a common layer of gate dielectric material disposed between the quantum well stack 146 and the insulating material 128. In other embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 for each of the gates 106/108 may be provided by separate portions of gate dielectric 114. In some embodiments, the gate dielectric 114 may be a multilayer gate dielectric (e.g., with multiple materials used to improve the interface between the trench 107 and the corresponding gate metal). The gate dielectric 114 may be, for example, silicon oxide, aluminum oxide, or a high-k dielectric, such as hafnium oxide. More generally, the gate dielectric 114 may include elements such as hafnium, silicon, oxygen, titanium, tantalum, lanthanum, aluminum, zirconium, barium, strontium, yttrium, lead, scandium, niobium, and zinc. Examples of materials that may be used in the gate dielectric 114 may include, but are not limited to, hafnium oxide, hafnium silicon oxide, lanthanum oxide, lanthanum aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, zirconium silicon oxide, tantalum oxide, titanium oxide, barium strontium titanium oxide, barium titanium oxide, strontium titanium oxide, yttrium oxide, aluminum oxide, tantalum oxide, tantalum silicon oxide, lead scandium tantalum oxide, and lead zinc niobate. In some embodiments, an annealing process may be carried out on the gate dielectric 114 to improve the quality of the gate dielectric 114.

Each of the gates 106 may include a gate metal 110 and a hardmask 116. The hardmask 116 may be formed of silicon nitride, silicon carbide, or another suitable material. The gate metal 110 may be disposed between the hardmask 116 and the gate dielectric 114, and the gate dielectric 114 may be disposed between the gate metal 110 and the quantum well stack 146. As shown in FIG. 17, in some embodiments, the gate metal 110 of a gate 106 may extend over the insulating material 128 and into a trench 107 in the insulating material 128. Only one portion of the hardmask 116 is labeled in FIG. 18 for ease of illustration. In some embodiments, the gate metal 110 may be a superconductor, such as aluminum, titanium nitride (e.g., deposited via atomic layer deposition), or niobium titanium nitride. In some embodiments, the hardmask 116 may not be present in the quantum dot device 100 (e.g., a hardmask like the hardmask 116 may be removed during processing, as discussed below). The sides of the gate metal 110 may be substantially parallel, as shown in FIG. 18. In some embodiments, an insulating material 130 may be provided on the sides of the gate metal 110, and possibly on the sides of the hardmask 116, along the longitudinal axis of the trench 107. The insulating material 130 may be any suitable material, such as an interlayer dielectric (ILD). Examples of the insulating material 130 may include silicon oxide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, carbon-doped oxide, or/and other carbides or nitrides (e.g., silicon carbide, silicon nitride doped with carbon, and silicon oxynitride). In other embodiments, the gate metal 110 may be separated from the adjacent gate metals 112 by gaps, e.g. air gaps. The gate metal 110 may be any suitable metal, such as titanium nitride.

Each of the gates 108 may include a gate metal 112 and a hardmask 118. The hardmask 118 may be formed of silicon nitride, silicon carbide, or another suitable material. The gate metal 112 may be disposed between the hardmask 118 and the gate dielectric 114, and the gate dielectric 114 may be disposed between the gate metal 112 and the quantum well stack 146. As shown in FIG. 19, in some embodiments, the gate metal 112 of a gate 108 may extend over the insulating material 128 and into a trench 107 in the insulating material 128. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 18, the hardmask 118 may extend over the hardmask 116 (and over the gate metal 110 of the gates 106), while in other embodiments, the hardmask 118 may not extend over the gate metal 110. In some embodiments, the gate metal 112 may be a different metal from the gate metal 110; in other embodiments, the gate metal 112 and the gate metal 110 may have the same material composition. In some embodiments, the gate metal 112 may be a superconductor, such as aluminum, titanium nitride (e.g., deposited via atomic layer deposition), or niobium titanium nitride. In some embodiments, the hardmask 118 may not be present in the quantum dot device 100 (e.g., a hardmask like the hardmask 118 may be removed during processing).

The sides of the gate metal 112 may be substantially parallel, as shown in FIG. 18. In some embodiments, the gate metal 112 of the gate 108-1 may extend between the insulating material 130 or gaps between the sides of the gate 106-1 and the gate 106-2, along the longitudinal axis of the trench 107, as shown in FIG. 18. Similarly, the gate 108-2 may extend between the insulating material 130 or gaps between the sides of the gate 106-2 and the gate 106-3, along the longitudinal axis of the trench 107. The gate metal 112, like the gate metal 110, may be any suitable metal, such as titanium nitride.

The dimensions of the gates 106/108 may take any suitable values. For example, in some embodiments, the z-height 166 of the gate metal 110 in the trench 107 may be between 225 nanometers and 375 nanometers (e.g., approximately 300 nanometers); the z-height 175 of the gate metal 112 may be in the same range. This z-height 166 of the gate metal 110 in the trench 107 may represent the sum of the z-height of the insulating material 128 (e.g., between 200 nanometers and 300 nanometers) and the thickness of the gate metal 110 on top of the insulating material 128 (e.g., between 25 nanometers and 75 nanometers, or approximately 50 nanometers). In embodiments like the ones illustrated in FIGS. 17-19, the z-height 175 of the gate metal 112 may be greater than the z-height 166 of the gate metal 110. In some embodiments, the width 168 of the gate metal 110 (i.e., in the x-direction) may be between 20 nanometers and 40 nanometers (e.g., 30 nanometers). Although all of the gates 106 are illustrated in the accompanying drawings as having the same width 168 of the gate metal 110, in some embodiments, the “outermost” gates 106 (e.g., the gates 106-1 and 106-3 of the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 18) may have a greater width 168 than the “inner” gates 106 (e.g., the gate 106-2 in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 18). Such wider “outside” gates 106 may provide spatial separation between the doped regions 140 and the areas under the gates 108 and the inner gates 106 in which quantum dots 142 may form, and thus may reduce the perturbations to the potential energy landscape under the gates 108 and the inner gates 106 caused by the doped regions 140.

In some embodiments, the distance 170 between adjacent ones of the gates 106 (e.g., as measured from the gate metal 110 of one gate 106 to the gate metal 110 of an adjacent gate 106 in the x-direction, as illustrated in FIG. 18) may be between 40 nanometers and 100 nanometers (e.g., 50 nanometers). As indicated in FIGS. 17 and 19, the gates 106/108 in one trench 107 may extend over the insulating material 128 between that trench 107 and an adjacent trench 107, but may be isolated from their counterpart gates by the intervening insulating material 130.

As shown in FIG. 18, the gates 106 and 108 may be alternatingly arranged in the x-direction. During operation of the quantum dot device 100, voltages may be applied to the gates 106/108 to adjust the potential energy in the quantum well stack 146 to create quantum wells of varying depths in which quantum dots 142 may form, as discussed above with reference to the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 1-3. Only one quantum dot 142 is labeled with a reference numeral in FIG. 18 for ease of illustration, but five are indicated as dotted circles below each trench 107.

The quantum well stack 146 of the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19 may include doped regions 140 that may serve as a reservoir of charge carriers for the quantum dot device 100, in accordance with any of the embodiments discussed above. The quantum dot devices 100 discussed with reference to FIGS. 17-19 may be used to form electron-type or hole-type quantum dots 142, as discussed above with reference to FIGS. 1-3.

Conductive vias and lines may make contact with the gates 106/108 of the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19, and to the doped regions 140, to enable electrical connection to the gates 106/108 and the doped regions 140 to be made in desired locations. As shown in FIGS. 17-19, the gates 106 may extend both “vertically” and “horizontally” away from the quantum well stack 146, and conductive vias 120 may contact the gates 106 (and are drawn in dashed lines in FIG. 18 to indicate their location behind the plane of the drawing). The conductive vias 120 may extend through the hardmask 116 and the hardmask 118 to contact the gate metal 110 of the gates 106. The gates 108 may similarly extend away from the quantum well stack 146, and conductive vias 122 may contact the gates 108 (also drawn in dashed lines in FIG. 48 to indicate their location behind the plane of the drawing). The conductive vias 122 may extend through the hardmask 118 to contact the gate metal 112 of the gates 108. Conductive vias 136 may contact the interface material 141 and may thereby make electrical contact with the doped regions 140. The quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19 may include further conductive vias and/or lines (not shown) to make electrical contact to the gates 106/108 and/or the doped regions 140, as desired. The conductive vias and lines included in a quantum dot device 100 may include any suitable materials, such as copper, tungsten (deposited, e.g., by CVD), or a superconductor (e.g., aluminum, tin, titanium nitride, niobium titanium nitride, tantalum, niobium, or other niobium compounds such as niobium tin and niobium germanium).

In some embodiments, the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19 may include one or more magnet lines 121. For example, a single magnet line 121 is illustrated in FIGS. 17-19, proximate to the trench 107-1. The magnet line(s) 121 of the quantum dot device of FIGS. 17-19 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the magnet lines 121 discussed herein. For example, the magnet line 121 may be formed of a conductive material, and may be used to conduct current pulses that generate magnetic fields to influence the spin states of one or more of the quantum dots 142 that may form in the quantum well stack 146. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may conduct a pulse to reset (or “scramble”) nuclear and/or quantum dot spins. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may conduct a pulse to initialize an electron in a quantum dot in a particular spin state. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may conduct current to provide a continuous, oscillating magnetic field to which the spin of a qubit may couple. The magnet line 121 may provide any suitable combination of these embodiments, or any other appropriate functionality.

In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 of FIGS. 17-19 may be formed of copper. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may be formed of a superconductor, such as aluminum. The magnet line 121 illustrated in FIGS. 17-19 is non-coplanar with the trenches 107, and is also non-coplanar with the gates 106/108. In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 may be spaced apart from the gates 106/108 by a distance 167. The distance 167 may take any suitable value (e.g., based on the desired strength of magnetic field interaction with particular quantum dots 142); in some embodiments, the distance 167 may be between 25 nanometers and 1 micron (e.g., between 50 nanometers and 200 nanometers).

In some embodiments, the magnet line 121 of FIGS. 17-19 may be formed of a magnetic material. For example, a magnetic material (such as cobalt) may be deposited in a trench in the insulating material 130 to provide a permanent magnetic field in the quantum dot device 100.

The magnet line 121 of FIGS. 17-19 may have any suitable dimensions. For example, the magnet line 121 may have a thickness 169 between 25 nanometers and 100 nanometers. The magnet line 121 may have a width 171 between 25 nanometers and 100 nanometers. In some embodiments, the width 171 and thickness 169 of a magnet line 121 may be equal to the width and thickness, respectively, of other conductive lines in the quantum dot device 100 (not shown) used to provide electrical interconnects, as known in the art. The magnet line 121 may have a length 173 that may depend on the number and dimensions of the gates 106/108 that are to form quantum dots 142 with which the magnet line 121 is to interact. The magnet line 121 illustrated in FIGS. 17-19 are substantially linear, but this need not be the case; the magnet lines 121 disclosed herein may take any suitable shape. Conductive vias 123 may contact the magnet line 121.

The conductive vias 120, 122, 136, and 123 may be electrically isolated from each other by an insulating material 130, all of which may take any of the forms discussed above with reference to FIGS. 1-3. The particular arrangement of conductive vias shown in FIGS. 17-19 is simply illustrative, and any electrical routing arrangement may be implemented.

As discussed above, the structure of the trench 107-1 may be the same as the structure of the trench 107-2; similarly, the construction of gates 106/108 in and around the trench 107-1 may be the same as the construction of gates 106/108 in and around the trench 107-2. The gates 106/108 associated with the trench 107-1 may be mirrored by corresponding gates 106/108 associated with the parallel trench 107-2, and the insulating material 130 may separate the gates 106/108 associated with the different trenches 107-1 and 107-2. In particular, quantum dots 142 formed in the quantum well stack 146 under the trench 107-1 (under the gates 106/108) may have counterpart quantum dots 142 in the quantum well stack 146 under the trench 107-2 (under the corresponding gates 106/108). In some embodiments, the quantum dots 142 under the trench 107-1 may be used as “active” quantum dots in the sense that these quantum dots 142 act as qubits and are controlled (e.g., by voltages applied to the gates 106/108 associated with the trench 107-1) to perform quantum computations. The quantum dots 142 associated with the trench 107-2 may be used as “read” quantum dots in the sense that these quantum dots 142 may sense the quantum state of the quantum dots 142 under the trench 107-1 by detecting the electric field generated by the charge in the quantum dots 142 under the trench 107-1, and may convert the quantum state of the quantum dots 142 under the trench 107-1 into electrical signals that may be detected by the gates 106/108 associated with the trench 107-2. Each quantum dot 142 under the trench 107-1 may be read by its corresponding quantum dot 142 under the trench 107-2. Thus, the quantum dot device 100 enables both quantum computation and the ability to read the results of a quantum computation.

In the embodiment of the quantum dot device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 17-19, the magnet line 121 is oriented parallel to the longitudinal axes of the trenches 107. In other embodiments, the magnet line 121 of the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19 may not be oriented parallel to the longitudinal axes of the trenches 107; for example, any of the magnet line arrangements discussed above with reference to FIGS. 4-6 may be used.

Although a single magnet line 121 is illustrated in FIGS. 17-19, multiple magnet lines 121 may be included in that embodiment of the quantum dot device 100 (e.g., multiple magnet lines 121 parallel to the longitudinal axes of the trenches 107). For example, the quantum dot device 100 of FIGS. 17-19 may include a second magnet line 121 proximate to the trench 107-2 in a symmetric manner to the magnet line 121 illustrated proximate to the trench 107-1. In some embodiments, multiple magnet lines 121 may be included in a quantum dot device 100, and these magnet lines 121 may or may not be parallel to one another. For example, in some embodiments, a quantum dot device 100 may include two (or more) magnet lines 121 that are oriented perpendicular to each other.

As noted above, a quantum dot device 100 may include multiple trenches 107 arranged in an array of any desired size. For example, FIG. 20 is a top cross-sectional view, like the view of FIG. 3, of a quantum dot device 100 having multiple trenches 107 arranged in a two-dimensional array. Magnet lines 121 are not depicted in FIG. 20, although they may be included in any desired arrangements. In the particular example illustrated in FIG. 20, the trenches 107 may be arranged in pairs, each pair including an “active” trench 107 and a “read” trench 107, as discussed above. The particular number and arrangement of trenches 107 in FIG. 20 is simply illustrative, and any desired arrangement may be used. Similarly, a quantum dot device 100 may include multiple sets of fins 104 (and accompanying gates, as discussed above with reference to FIGS. 1-3) arranged in a two-dimensional array.

As noted above, a single trench 107 may include multiple groups of gates 106/108, spaced apart along the trench by a doped region 140. FIG. 21 is a cross-sectional view of an example of such a quantum dot device 100 having multiple groups of gates 180 at least partially disposed in a single trench 107 above a quantum well stack 146, in accordance with various embodiments. Each of the groups 180 may include gates 106/108 (not labeled in FIG. 21 for ease of illustration) that may take the form of any of the embodiments of the gates 106/108 discussed herein. A doped region 140 (and its interface material 141) may be disposed between two adjacent groups 180 (labeled in FIG. 21 as groups 180-1 and 180-2), and may provide a common reservoir for both groups 180. In some embodiments, this “common” doped region 140 may be electrically contacted by a single conductive via 136. The particular number of gates 106/108 illustrated in FIG. 21, and the particular number of groups 180, is simply illustrative, and a trench 107 may include any suitable number of gates 106/108 arranged in any suitable number of groups 180. The quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 21 may also include one or more magnet lines 121, arranged as desired. Similarly, in embodiments of the quantum dot device 100 that include fins, a single fin 104 may include multiple groups of gates 106/108, spaced apart along the fin.

In some embodiments, the quantum dot device 100 may be included in a die and coupled to a package substrate to form a quantum dot device package. For example, FIG. 22 is a side cross-sectional view of a die 302 including the quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 18 and conductive pathway layers 303 disposed thereon, while FIG. 23 is a side cross-sectional view of a quantum dot device package 300 in which the die 302 and another die 350 are coupled to a package substrate 304 (e.g., in a system-on-a-chip (SoC) arrangement). Details of the quantum dot device 100 are omitted from FIG. 23 for economy of illustration. As noted above, the particular quantum dot device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 22 and 23 may take a form similar to the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 18, but any of the quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein may be included in a die (e.g., the die 302) and coupled to a package substrate (e.g., the package substrate 304). In particular, any number of fins 104 or trenches 107, gates 106/108, doped regions 140, magnet lines 121, and other components discussed herein with reference to various embodiments of the quantum dot device 100 may be included in the die 302.

The die 302 may include a first face 320 and an opposing second face 322. The base 102 may be proximate to the second face 322, and conductive pathways 315 from various components of the quantum dot device 100 may extend to conductive contacts 365 disposed at the first face 320. The conductive pathways 315 may include conductive vias, conductive lines, and/or any combination of conductive vias and lines. For example, FIG. 22 illustrates an embodiment in which one conductive pathway 315 (extending between a magnet line 121 and associated conductive contact 365) includes a conductive via 123, a conductive line 393, a conductive via 398, and a conductive line 396. More or fewer structures may be included in the conductive pathways 315, and analogous conductive pathways 315 may be provided between ones of the conductive contacts 365 and the gates 106/108, doped regions 140, or other components of the quantum dot device 100. In some embodiments, conductive lines of the die 302 (and the package substrate 304, discussed below) may extend into and out of the plane of the drawing, providing conductive pathways to route electrical signals to and/or from various elements in the die 302.

The conductive vias and/or lines that provide the conductive pathways 315 in the die 302 may be formed using any suitable techniques. Examples of such techniques may include subtractive fabrication techniques, additive or semi-additive fabrication techniques, single Damascene fabrication techniques, dual Damascene fabrication techniques, or any other suitable technique. In some embodiments, layers of oxide material 390 and layers of nitride material 391 may insulate various structures in the conductive pathways 315 from proximate structures, and/or may serve as etch stops during fabrication. In some embodiments, an adhesion layer (not shown) may be disposed between conductive material and proximate insulating material of the die 302 to improve mechanical adhesion between the conductive material and the insulating material.

The gates 106/108, the doped regions 140, and the quantum well stack 146 (as well as the proximate conductive vias/lines) may be referred to as part of the “device layer” of the quantum dot device 100. The conductive lines 393 may be referred to as a Metal 1 or “M1” interconnect layer, and may couple the structures in the device layer to other interconnect structures. The conductive vias 398 and the conductive lines 396 may be referred to as a Metal 2 or “M2” interconnect layer, and may be formed directly on the M1 interconnect layer.

A solder resist material 367 may be disposed around the conductive contacts 365, and, in some embodiments, may extend onto the conductive contacts 365. The solder resist material 367 may be a polyimide or similar material, or may be any appropriate type of packaging solder resist material. In some embodiments, the solder resist material 367 may be a liquid or dry film material including photoimageable polymers. In some embodiments, the solder resist material 367 may be non-photoimageable (and openings therein may be formed using laser drilling or masked etch techniques). The conductive contacts 365 may provide the contacts to couple other components (e.g., a package substrate 304, as discussed below, or another component) to the conductive pathways 315 in the quantum dot device 100, and may be formed of any suitable conductive material (e.g., a superconducting material). For example, solder bonds may be formed on the one or more conductive contacts 365 to mechanically and/or electrically couple the die 302 with another component (e.g., a circuit board), as discussed below. The conductive contacts 365 illustrated in FIG. 22 take the form of bond pads, but other first level interconnect structures may be used (e.g., posts) to route electrical signals to/from the die 302, as discussed below.

The combination of the conductive pathways and the proximate insulating material (e.g., the insulating material 130, the oxide material 390, and the nitride material 391) in the die 302 may provide an interlayer dielectric (ILD) stack of the die 302. As noted above, interconnect structures may be arranged within the quantum dot device 100 to route electrical signals according to a wide variety of designs (in particular, the arrangement is not limited to the particular configuration of interconnect structures depicted in FIG. 22 or any of the other accompanying figures, and may include more or fewer interconnect structures). During operation of the quantum dot device 100, electrical signals (such as power and/or input/output (I/O) signals) may be routed to and/or from the gates 106/108, the magnet line(s) 121, and/or the doped regions 140 (and/or other components) of the quantum dot device 100 through the interconnects provided by conductive vias and/or lines, and through the conductive pathways of the package substrate 304 (discussed below).

Example superconducting materials that may be used for the structures in the conductive pathways 313, 317, 319 (discussed below), and 315, and/or conductive contacts of the die 302 and/or the package substrate 304, may include aluminum, niobium, tin, titanium, osmium, zinc, molybdenum, tantalum, vanadium, or composites of such materials (e.g., niobium titanium, niobium aluminum, or niobium tin). In some embodiments, the conductive contacts 365, 379, and/or 399 may include aluminum, and the first level interconnects 306 and/or the second level interconnects 308 may include an indium-based solder.

As noted above, the quantum dot device package 300 of FIG. 23 may include a die 302 (including one or more quantum dot devices 100) and a die 350. As discussed in detail below, the quantum dot device package 300 may include electrical pathways between the die 302 and the die 350 so that the dies 302 and 350 may communicate during operation. In some embodiments, the die 350 may be a non-quantum logic device that may provide support or control functionality for the quantum dot device(s) 100 of the die 302. For example, as discussed further below, in some embodiments, the die 350 may include a switching matrix to control the writing and reading of data from the die 302 (e.g., using any known word line/bit line or other addressing architecture). In some embodiments, the die 350 may control the voltages (e.g., microwave pulses) applied to the gates 106/108, and/or the doped regions 140, of the quantum dot device(s) 100 included in the die 302. In some embodiments, the die 350 may include magnet line control logic to provide microwave pulses to the magnet line(s) 121 of the quantum dot device(s) 100 in the die 302. The die 350 may include any desired control circuitry to support operation of the die 302. By including this control circuitry in a separate die, the manufacture of the die 302 may be simplified and focused on the needs of the quantum computations performed by the quantum dot device(s) 100, and conventional manufacturing and design processes for control logic (e.g., switching array logic) may be used to form the die 350.

Although a singular “die 350” is illustrated in FIG. 23 and discussed herein, the functionality provided by the die 350 may, in some embodiments, be distributed across multiple dies 350 (e.g., multiple dies coupled to the package substrate 304, or otherwise sharing a common support with the die 302). Similarly, one or more dies providing the functionality of the die 350 may support one or more dies providing the functionality of the die 302; for example, the quantum dot device package 300 may include multiple dies having one or more quantum dot devices 100, and a die 350 may communicate with one or more such “quantum dot device dies.”

The die 350 may take any of the forms discussed below with reference to the non-quantum processing device 2028 of FIG. 30. Mechanisms by which the control logic of the die 350 may control operation of the die 302 may be take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment or an embodiment combining software and hardware aspects. For example, the die 350 may implement an algorithm executed by one or more processing units, e.g. one or more microprocessors. In various embodiments, aspects of the present disclosure may take the form of a computer program product embodied in one or more computer readable medium(s), preferably non-transitory, having computer readable program code embodied (e.g., stored) in or coupled to the die 350. In various embodiments, such a computer program may, for example, be downloaded (updated) to the die 350 (or attendant memory) or be stored upon manufacturing of the die 350. In some embodiments, the die 350 may include at least one processor and at least one memory element, along with any other suitable hardware and/or software to enable its intended functionality of controlling operation of the die 302 as described herein. A processor of the die 350 may execute software or an algorithm to perform the activities discussed herein. A processor of the die 350 may be communicatively coupled to other system elements via one or more interconnects or buses (e.g., through one or more conductive pathways 319). Such a processor may include any combination of hardware, software, or firmware providing programmable logic, including by way of non-limiting example, a microprocessor, a digital signal processor (DSP), a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), a programmable logic array (PLA), an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), or a virtual machine processor. The processor of the die 350 may be communicatively coupled to the memory element of the die 350, for example, in a direct-memory access (DMA) configuration. A memory element of the die 350 may include any suitable volatile or nonvolatile memory technology, including double data rate (DDR) random access memory (RAM), synchronous RAM (SRAM), dynamic RAM (DRAM), flash, read-only memory (ROM), optical media, virtual memory regions, magnetic or tape memory, or any other suitable technology. In some embodiments, the memory element and the processor of the “die 350” may themselves be provided by separate physical dies that are in electrical communication. The information being tracked or sent to the die 350 could be provided in any database, register, control list, cache, or storage structure, all of which can be referenced at any suitable timeframe. The die 350 can further include suitable interfaces for receiving, transmitting, and/or otherwise communicating data or information in a network environment (e.g., via the conductive pathways 319).

In some embodiments, the die 350 may be configured to apply appropriate voltages to any one of the gates 106/108 (acting as, e.g., plunger gates, barrier gates, and/or accumulation gates) in order to initialize and manipulate the quantum dots 142, as discussed above. For example, by controlling the voltage applied to a gate 106/108 acting as a plunger gate, the die 350 may modulate the electric field underneath that gate to create an energy valley between the tunnel barriers created by adjacent barrier gates. In another example, by controlling the voltage applied to a gate 106/108 acting as a barrier gate, the die 350 may change the height of the tunnel barrier. When a barrier gate is used to set a tunnel barrier between two plunger gates, the barrier gate may be used to transfer charge carriers between quantum dots 142 that may be formed under these plunger gates. When a barrier gate is used to set a tunnel barrier between a plunger gate and an accumulation gate, the barrier gate may be used to transfer charge carriers in and out of the quantum dot array via the accumulation gate. The term “accumulation gate” may refer to a gate used to form a 2DEG in an area that is between the area where the quantum dots 142 may be formed and a charge carrier reservoir (e.g., the doped regions 140). Changing the voltage applied to the accumulation gate may allow the die 350 to control the number of charge carriers in the area under the accumulation gate. For example, changing the voltage applied to the accumulation gate may reduce the number of charge carriers in the area under the gate so that single charge carriers can be transferred from the reservoir into the quantum well layer 152, and vice versa. In some embodiments, the “outermost” gates 106 in a quantum dot device 100 may serve as accumulation gates. In some embodiments, these outermost gates 106 may have a greater width 168 than “inner” gates 106.

As noted above, the die 350 may provide electrical signals to control spins of charge carriers in quantum dots 142 of the quantum dot device(s) 100 of the die 302 by controlling a magnetic field generated by one or more magnet line(s) 121. In this manner, the die 350 may initialize and manipulate spins of the charge carriers in the quantum dots 142 to implement qubit operations. If the magnetic field for a die 302 is generated by a microwave transmission line, then the die 350 may set/manipulate the spins of the charge carriers by applying appropriate pulse sequences to manipulate spin precession. Alternatively, the magnetic field for a quantum dot device 100 of the die 302 may be generated by a magnet with one or more pulsed gates; the die 350 may apply the pulses to these gates.

In some embodiments, the die 350 may be configured to determine the values of the control signals applied to the elements of the die 302 (e.g. determine the voltages to be applied to the various gates 106/108) to achieve desired quantum operations (communicated to the die 350 through the package substrate 304 via the conductive pathways 319). In other embodiments, the die 350 may be preprogrammed with at least some of the control parameters (e.g. with the values for the voltages to be applied to the various gates 106/108) during the initialization of the die 350.

In the quantum dot device package 300 (FIG. 23), first level interconnects 306 may be disposed between the first face 320 of the die 302 and the second face 326 of a package substrate 304. Having first level interconnects 306 disposed between the first face 320 of the die 302 and the second face 326 of the package substrate 304 (e.g., using solder bumps as part of flip chip packaging techniques) may enable the quantum dot device package 300 to achieve a smaller footprint and higher die-to-package-substrate connection density than could be achieved using conventional wirebond techniques (in which conductive contacts between the die 302 and the package substrate 304 are constrained to be located on the periphery of the die 302). For example, a die 302 having a square first face 320 with side length N may be able to form only 4N wirebond interconnects to the package substrate 304, versus N² flip chip interconnects (utilizing the entire “full field” surface area of the first face 320). Additionally, in some applications, wirebond interconnects may generate unacceptable amounts of heat that may damage or otherwise interfere with the performance of the quantum dot device 100. Using solder bumps as the first level interconnects 306 may enable the quantum dot device package 300 to have much lower parasitic inductance relative to using wirebonds to couple the die 302 and the package substrate 304, which may result in an improvement in signal integrity for high speed signals communicated between the die 302 and the package substrate 304. Similarly, first level interconnects 309 may be disposed between conductive contacts 371 of the die 350 and conductive contacts 379 at the second face 326 of the package substrate 304, as shown, to couple electronic components (not shown) in the die 350 to conductive pathways in the package substrate 304.

The package substrate 304 may include a first face 324 and an opposing second face 326. Conductive contacts 399 may be disposed at the first face 324, and conductive contacts 379 may be disposed at the second face 326. Solder resist material 314 may be disposed around the conductive contacts 379, and solder resist material 312 may be disposed around the conductive contacts 399; the solder resist materials 314 and 312 may take any of the forms discussed above with reference to the solder resist material 367. In some embodiments, the solder resist material 312 and/or the solder resist material 314 may be omitted. Conductive pathways may extend through the insulating material 310 between the first face 324 and the second face 326 of the package substrate 304, electrically coupling various ones of the conductive contacts 399 to various ones of the conductive contacts 379, in any desired manner. The insulating material 310 may be a dielectric material (e.g., an ILD), and may take the form of any of the embodiments of the insulating material 130 disclosed herein, for example. The conductive pathways may include one or more conductive vias 395 and/or one or more conductive lines 397, for example.

For example, the package substrate 304 may include one or more conductive pathways 313 to electrically couple the die 302 to conductive contacts 399 on the first face 324 of the package substrate 304; these conductive pathways 313 may be used to allow the die 302 to electrically communicate with a circuit component to which the quantum dot device package 300 is coupled (e.g., a circuit board or interposer, as discussed below). The package substrate 304 may include one or more conductive pathways 319 to electrically couple the die 350 to conductive contacts 399 on the first face 324 of the package substrate 304; these conductive pathways 319 may be used to allow the die 350 to electrically communicate with a circuit component to which the quantum dot device package 300 is coupled (e.g., a circuit board or interposer, as discussed below).

The package substrate 304 may include one or more conductive pathways 317 to electrically couple the die 302 to the die 350 through the package substrate 304. In particular, the package substrate 304 may include conductive pathways 317 that couple different ones of the conductive contacts 379 on the second face 326 of the package substrate 304 so that, when the die 302 and the die 350 are coupled to these different conductive contacts 379, the die 302 and the die 350 may communicate through the package substrate 304. Although the die 302 and the die 350 are illustrated in FIG. 23 as being disposed on the same second face 326 of the package substrate 304, in some embodiments, the die 302 and the die 350 may be disposed on different faces of the package substrate 304 (e.g., one on the first face 324 and one on the second face 326), and may communicate via one or more conductive pathways 317.

In some embodiments, the conductive pathways 317 may be microwave transmission lines. Microwave transmission lines may be structured for the effective transmission of microwave signals, and may take the form of any microwave transmission lines known in the art. For example, a conductive pathway 317 may be a coplanar waveguide, a stripline, a microstrip line, or an inverted microstrip line. The die 350 may provide microwave pulses along the conductive pathways 317 to the die 302 to provide electron spin resonance (ESR) pulses to the quantum dot device(s) 100 to manipulate the spin states of the quantum dots 142 that form therein. In some embodiments, the die 350 may generate a microwave pulse that is transmitted over a conductive pathway 317 and induces a magnetic field in the magnet line(s) 121 of a quantum dot device 100 and causes a transition between the spin-up and spin-down states of a quantum dot 142. In some embodiments, the die 350 may generate a microwave pulse that is transmitted over a conductive pathway 317 and induces a magnetic field in a gate 106/108 to cause a transition between the spin-up and spin-down states of a quantum dot 142. The die 350 may enable any such embodiments, or any combination of such embodiments.

The die 350 may provide any suitable control signals to the die 302 to enable operation of the quantum dot device(s) 100 included in the die 302. For example, the die 350 may provide voltages (through the conductive pathways 317) to the gates 106/108, and thereby tune the energy profile in the quantum well stack 146.

In some embodiments, the quantum dot device package 300 may be a cored package, one in which the package substrate 304 is built on a carrier material (not shown) that remains in the package substrate 304. In such embodiments, the carrier material may be a dielectric material that is part of the insulating material 310; laser vias or other through-holes may be made through the carrier material to allow conductive pathways 313 and/or 319 to extend between the first face 324 and the second face 326.

In some embodiments, the package substrate 304 may be or may otherwise include a silicon interposer, and the conductive pathways 313 and/or 319 may be through-silicon vias. Silicon may have a desirably low coefficient of thermal expansion compared with other dielectric materials that may be used for the insulating material 310, and thus may limit the degree to which the package substrate 304 expands and contracts during temperature changes relative to such other materials (e.g., polymers having higher coefficients of thermal expansion). A silicon interposer may also help the package substrate 304 achieve a desirably small line width and maintain high connection density to the die 302 and/or the die 350.

Limiting differential expansion and contraction may help preserve the mechanical and electrical integrity of the quantum dot device package 300 as the quantum dot device package 300 is fabricated (and exposed to higher temperatures) and used in a cooled environment (and exposed to lower temperatures). In some embodiments, thermal expansion and contraction in the package substrate 304 may be managed by maintaining an approximately uniform density of the conductive material in the package substrate 304 (so that different portions of the package substrate 304 expand and contract uniformly), using reinforced dielectric materials as the insulating material 310 (e.g., dielectric materials with silicon dioxide fillers), or utilizing stiffer materials as the insulating material 310 (e.g., a prepreg material including glass cloth fibers). In some embodiments, the die 350 may be formed of semiconductor materials or compound semiconductor materials (e.g., group III-group V compounds) to enable higher efficiency amplification and signal generation to minimize the heat generated during operation and reduce the impact on the quantum operations of the die 302. In some embodiments, the metallization in the die 350 may use superconducting materials (e.g., titanium nitride, niobium, niobium nitride, and niobium titanium nitride) to minimize heating.

The conductive contacts 365 of the die 302 may be electrically coupled to the conductive contacts 379 of the package substrate 304 via the first level interconnects 306, and the conductive contacts 371 of the die 350 may be electrically coupled to the conductive contacts 379 of the package substrate 304 via the first level interconnects 309. In some embodiments, the first level interconnects 306/309 may include solder bumps or balls (as illustrated in FIG. 23); for example, the first level interconnects 306/309 may be flip chip (or controlled collapse chip connection, “C4”) bumps disposed initially on the die 302/die 350 or on the package substrate 304. Second level interconnects 308 (e.g., solder balls or other types of interconnects) may couple the conductive contacts 399 on the first face 324 of the package substrate 304 to another component, such as a circuit board (not shown). Examples of arrangements of electronics packages that may include an embodiment of the quantum dot device package 300 are discussed below with reference to FIG. 29. The die 302 and/or the die 350 may be brought in contact with the package substrate 304 using a pick-and-place apparatus, for example, and a reflow or thermal compression bonding operation may be used to couple the die 302 and/or the die 350 to the package substrate 304 via the first level interconnects 306 and/or the first level interconnects 309, respectively.

The conductive contacts 365, 371, 379, and/or 399 may include multiple layers of material that may be selected to serve different purposes. In some embodiments, the conductive contacts 365, 371, 379, and/or 399 may be formed of aluminum, and may include a layer of gold (e.g., with a thickness of less than 1 micron) between the aluminum and the adjacent interconnect to limit the oxidation of the surface of the contacts and improve the adhesion with adjacent solder. In some embodiments, the conductive contacts 365, 371, 379, and/or 399 may be formed of aluminum, and may include a layer of a barrier metal such as nickel, as well as a layer of gold, wherein the layer of barrier metal is disposed between the aluminum and the layer of gold, and the layer of gold is disposed between the barrier metal and the adjacent interconnect. In such embodiments, the gold may protect the barrier metal surface from oxidation before assembly, and the barrier metal may limit the diffusion of solder from the adjacent interconnects into the aluminum.

In some embodiments, the structures and materials in the quantum dot device 100 may be damaged if the quantum dot device 100 is exposed to the high temperatures that are common in conventional integrated circuit processing (e.g., greater than 100 degrees Celsius, or greater than 200 degrees Celsius). In particular, in embodiments in which the first level interconnects 306/309 include solder, the solder may be a low temperature solder (e.g., a solder having a melting point below 100 degrees Celsius) so that it can be melted to couple the conductive contacts 365/371 and the conductive contacts 379 without having to expose the die 302 to higher temperatures and risk damaging the quantum dot device 100. Examples of solders that may be suitable include indium-based solders (e.g., solders including indium alloys). When low temperature solders are used, however, these solders may not be fully solid during handling of the quantum dot device package 300 (e.g., at room temperature or temperatures between room temperature and 100 degrees Celsius), and thus the solder of the first level interconnects 306/309 alone may not reliably mechanically couple the die 302/die 350 and the package substrate 304 (and thus may not reliably electrically couple the die 302/die 350 and the package substrate 304). In some such embodiments, the quantum dot device package 300 may further include a mechanical stabilizer to maintain mechanical coupling between the die 302/die 350 and the package substrate 304, even when solder of the first level interconnects 306/309 is not solid. Examples of mechanical stabilizers may include an underfill material disposed between the die 302/die 350 and the package substrate 304, a corner glue disposed between the die 302/die 350 and the package substrate 304, an overmold material disposed around the die 302/die 350 on the package substrate 304, and/or a mechanical frame to secure the die 302/die 350 and the package substrate 304.

In some embodiments of the quantum dot device package 300, the die 350 may not be included in the package 300; instead, the die 350 may be electrically coupled to the die 302 through another type of common physical support. For example, the die 350 may be separately packaged from the die 302 (e.g., the die 350 may be mounted to its own package substrate), and the two packages may be coupled together through an interposer, a printed circuit board, a bridge, a package-on-package arrangement, or in any other manner. Examples of device assemblies that may include the die 302 and the die 350 in various arrangements are discussed below with reference to FIG. 29.

A number of techniques are disclosed herein for operating a quantum dot device 100. FIG. 24 is a flow diagram of a particular illustrative method 1020 of operating a quantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments. Although the operations discussed below with reference to the method 1020 are illustrated in a particular order and depicted once each, these operations may be repeated or performed in a different order (e.g., in parallel), as suitable. Additionally, various operations may be omitted, as suitable. Various operations of the method 1020 may be illustrated with reference to one or more of the embodiments discussed above, but the method 1020 may be used to operate any suitable quantum dot device (including any suitable ones of the embodiments disclosed herein).

At 1022, electrical signals may be provided to one or more first gates disposed above a quantum well stack as part of causing a first quantum well to form in a quantum well layer in the quantum well stack. The quantum well stack may take the form of any of the embodiments disclosed herein (e.g., the quantum well stacks 146 discussed above with reference to FIGS. 7-9), and may be included in any of the quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein. For example, a voltage may be applied to a gate 108-11 as part of causing a first quantum well (for a first quantum dot 142) to form in the quantum well stack 146 below the gate 108-11.

At 1024, electrical signals may be provided to one or more second gates disposed above the quantum well stack as part of causing a second quantum well to form in the quantum well layer. For example, a voltage may be applied to the gate 108-12 as part of causing a second quantum well (for a second quantum dot 142) to form in the quantum well stack 146 below the gate 108-12.

At 1026, electrical signals may be provided to one or more third gates disposed above the quantum well stack as part of (1) causing a third quantum well to form in the quantum well layer or (2) providing a potential barrier between the first quantum well and the second quantum well. For example, a voltage may be applied to the gate 106-12 as part of (1) causing a third quantum well (for a third quantum dot 142) to form in the quantum well stack 146 below the gate 106-12 (e.g., when the gate 106-12 acts as a “plunger” gate) or (2) providing a potential barrier between the first quantum well (under the gate 108-11) and the second quantum well (under the gate 108-12) (e.g., when the gate 106-12 acts as a “barrier” gate).

The quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein may be manufactured using any suitable techniques. Fabrication techniques for providing metal gates in quantum devices according to various embodiments of the present disclosure are described below with reference to FIGS. 25-27.

FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view of an example metal gate arrangement 400 for various quantum devices described herein, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 25, an exemplary metal gate arrangement 400 may include a qubit device layer 402, a gate dielectric 406 provided over the qubit device layer 402, and a plurality of gate metals 404 provided over the gate dielectric 406. Only one gate metal 404 is labeled with a reference numeral in FIG. 25 for ease of illustration. While eight gate metals 404 are illustrated in FIG. 25, in other embodiments, more, or less, than eight gate metals 404 may be provided over the gate dielectric 406. Furthermore, the metal gate arrangement 400 shown in FIG. 25, as well as structures illustrated in FIGS. 27A-F are intended to show relative arrangements of the components therein, and that metal gate arrangements, or portions thereof, may include other components that are not illustrated, e.g. other components of a quantum device, e.g. any of the quantum devices described herein. In the embodiments where the metal gate arrangement 400 is used to realize gates in any of the quantum dot devices described herein, the qubit device layer 402 may be or include the fin 104 and, possibly, the base 102, the gate metal 404 may be used as the gate metal 110, 112, and the gate dielectric 406 may be used as the gate dielectric 114 described above. In the interests of brevity, descriptions of those elements are not repeated here. In other embodiments, the metal gate arrangement 400, with any suitable number of gate metals 404, may be used to implement gates in any other qubit devices, e.g. in donor-based spin qubit devices.

Although not specifically shown in FIG. 25, in some optional embodiments, besides the gate dielectric 406, an etch stop layer over the qubit device layer 402 may be present, either over or under the gate dielectric 406. Such an etch stop layer may serve to prevent or minimize etching into the underlying qubit device layer 402 during fabrication of the gate metals 404 or any further components associated with a quantum device. In other embodiments, the gate dielectric 406 itself may serve as an etch stop layer.

FIG. 26 provides a flow chart of a method 500 for fabricating metal gates for various quantum devices described herein, in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure. The method 500 may be used to fabricate the metal gate arrangement 400 as shown in FIG. 25. FIGS. 27A-27F are cross-sections illustrating various example stages in the manufacture of the metal gates for various quantum devices described herein using the method of FIG. 26, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure.

Although the particular manufacturing operations discussed below with reference to FIGS. 27A-F are illustrated as manufacturing a particular embodiment of the metal gate arrangement 400, at least some of these operations and/or operations with minor modifications may be applied to manufacturing many different embodiments of the metal gate arrangement 400, as discussed herein. Any of the elements and reference numerals discussed below with reference to FIG. 26 and FIGS. 27A-F may take the form of any of the embodiments of those elements and reference numerals discussed above or otherwise disclosed herein, which descriptions, therefore, are not repeated.

Turning to FIG. 26, the method 500 may begin with providing a gate dielectric over a qubit device layer (a process 502 shown in FIG. 26, a result of which is shown in FIG. 27A as an arrangement 602). The arrangement 602 shown in FIG. 27A illustrates the qubit device layer 402 and the gate dielectric 406 provided thereon. Discussions provided above with respect to the qubit device layer 402 and the gate dielectric 406 are applicable to the arrangement 602 and, therefore, in the interests of brevity, are not repeated here. In particular, as described above, an additional etch stop layer may be present over the qubit device layer 402, either over or under the gate dielectric 406.

The method 500 may then proceed with providing a pattern of gate support elements over the gate dielectric (a process 504 shown in FIG. 26, a result of which is shown in FIG. 27B as an arrangement 604). Example of FIG. 27B illustrates a pattern of four gate support elements 622, only one of which is labeled with a reference numeral for ease of illustration. In other embodiments, more, or less, than four gate support elements 622 may be provided over the gate dielectric 406 in the process 504.

In some embodiments, the pattern of the gate support elements 622 may be a plurality of parallel lines having a height (i.e. the dimension in the z-direction of an exemplary reference coordinate system shown in FIG. 27B) between about 5 and 1000 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, and a width (i.e. the dimension in the x-direction of the exemplary reference coordinate system shown in FIG. 27B) between 5 and 300 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein. In other embodiments, any other suitable pattern may be used, selected/designed so that, in subsequent fabrication steps, the electrically conductive material deposited on the sidewalls (i.e. the faces of the elements 622 which are substantially perpendicular to the qubit device layer 402) of the gate support elements 622 will form appropriately shaped and appropriately located gates.

In some embodiments, the aspect ratio (i.e. a ratio of height to width) of the gate support elements 622 could be between 1 and 10, e.g. between 1 and 5 or between 1 and 3. The gate support elements 622 may be spaced by any suitable spacing that would allow depositing electrically conductive material of the desired thickness on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622 so that the electrically conductive material on adjacent sidewalls of two adjacent elements 622 is not touching one another. For example, in some embodiments, the distance between different gate support elements 622 may be above about 20 nanometers, e.g. above 80 nanometers.

In some embodiments, the gate support elements 622 may be formed of a non-metallic material. In the optional embodiments where the gate support elements 622 may need to later be etched to leave the electrically conductive material deposited on their sidewalls, e.g. using anisotropic etching, etching properties of potential candidate materials are to be considered when selecting a suitable material to be used as the gate support elements 622. In addition, etching properties of a potential candidate material for the gate support elements 622 are to be considered in view of a potential candidate electrically conductive material for forming the gate metals as described herein. Preferably the material for the gate support elements 622 and the electrically conductive material for the future gate metals 404 have sufficiently distinct etching properties so that etch of the gate support elements 622 will not affect, or will only have an adequately small effect, on the gate metal 404 (i.e. these two materials should have sufficiently high etch selectivity with respect to one another). Besides appropriate etching characteristics, some other considerations in selecting a suitable material for the gate support elements 622 may include e.g. possibilities of smooth film formation, low shrinkage and outgassing, and good dielectric properties (such as e.g. low electrical leakage, suitable value of a dielectric constant, and thermal stability). Examples of materials that could be used to form the gate support elements 622 include, but are not limited to, silicon dioxide (SiO₂), carbon doped oxide (CDO), silicon nitride, organic polymers such as perfluorocyclobutane, polytetrafluoroethylene or poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), fluorosilicate glass (FSG), and organosilicates such as silsesquioxane, siloxane, or organosilicate glass.

In some embodiments, the gate support elements 622 may be provided over the qubit device layer 402 using e.g. chemical vapor deposition or/and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition, in combination with patterning (either before or after the deposition of the material of the gate support elements 622). In some embodiments, patterning may include any patterning technique employing photoresist or other masks defining the dimensions and location of the gate support elements 622 over the qubit device layer 402. In other embodiments, patterning may include any mask-less patterning technique, such as e.g. electron beam (e-beam) patterning.

Next, gate metal material may be provided on the sidewalls of the gate support elements (a process 506 shown in FIG. 26, a result of which is shown in FIG. 27C as an arrangement 606). FIG. 27C illustrates a cross-sectional view of the arrangement 604 from FIG. 26B subsequent to conformally depositing a layer 624 of electrically conductive material, i.e. gate metal, on the sidewalls and in openings between the gate support elements 622 of the assembly 604. Conformal deposition generally refers to deposition of a certain coating (in this case—the electrically conductive material that will form the gate metal 404) on any exposed surface of a given structure (in this case—the qubit device layer with the gate support elements 622 of the assembly 604), including on the sidewalls and bottom of any opening formed in/on the structure. A conformal coating may, therefore, be understood as a coating that is applied to exposed surfaces of a given structure, and not, for example, just to horizontal surfaces. In some embodiments, the coating may exhibit a variation in thickness of less than 35%, including all values and ranges from 1% to 35%, such as 10% or less, 15% or less, 20% of less, 25% or less, etc. The conformal coating process may be selected from processes such as e.g. atomic layer deposition (ALD) or chemical vapor deposition (CVD).

In various embodiments, a thickness of the layer 624, in particular the thickness of the layer 624 on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622 (i.e. the dimension in the x-direction of an exemplary reference coordinate system shown in FIG. 27B), may take on any suitable values so that, in subsequent fabrication steps, the electrically conductive material deposited on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622 will form gate metal 404 of appropriate dimensions, the latter described in greater detail below.

In some embodiments, an annealing process may be carried out on the layer 624 after its deposition to improve the quality of the electrically conductive material for the future gate metals 404. In various embodiments, the electrically conductive material of the layer 624 may include one or more of titanium nitride, aluminum, copper, tungsten, cobalt, ruthenium, nickel, iron, and molybdenum; one or more alloys comprising aluminum, copper, tungsten, cobalt, ruthenium, manganese, magnesium, boron, phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur; and/or any other suitable gate metal materials.

The method 500 may then proceed with removing the gate metal of the layer 624 from the top of and, optionally, in between the gate support elements 622 (a process 508 shown in FIG. 26, a result of which is shown in FIG. 27D as an arrangement 608). In some embodiments, such a removal may be performed using anisotropic etching of the gate metal of the layer 624 deposited in the process 506. In various embodiments, any suitable anisotropic etching technique (i.e. etching uniformly in vertical direction) may be used to etch the electrically conductive material of the layer 624 so that the material is only left on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622, but not in the openings between the gate support elements 622. Dry etching techniques, such as e.g. plasma etching, are typically known to provide finer resolution and directionality of etching than wet etching techniques which typically result in isotropic etching (i.e. etching in all directions). For example, the layer 624 made of metallic aluminum (Al) can be readily and anisotropically etched with chlorine (Cl) plasma by forming volatile Al₂Cl₆, where volatile Al₂Cl₆ is removed, resulting in patterned Al that remains only on the sidewalls, and possibly on top of, the gate support elements 622. A vertical anisotropic etch of the electrically conductive material of the layer 624 may be performed so that a portion of the electrically conductive material on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622 is removed as well, which may advantageously decrease surface roughness of the electrically conductive material on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622.

FIGS. 27C and 27D illustrate one exemplary embodiment for depositing an electrically conductive material on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622. In other embodiments, other techniques may be used. For example, instead of a conformal deposition process shown in FIG. 27C, other processes may be used that would deposit the electrically conductive material of the future gate metal 404 directly only, or substantially only, on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622. Such alternative processed may e.g. include physical vapor deposition (PVD) processes such as, magnetron sputtering with a high re-sputter rate with no net deposition on horizontal surfaces and only sidewall deposition, evaporative deposition or e-beam deposition, and may directly result in the assembly 608 as shown in FIG. 27D without the need for the anisotropic etch of the process 508 described above. Considerations regarding a thickness of the electrically conductive material on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622, as well as considerations regarding the selection and possible anneal of the electrically conductive material provided above are applicable to such alternative deposition processes and, therefore, in the interests of brevity, are not repeated here.

For any deposition technique used to deposit an electrically conductive material on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622 described above, planarization of the assembly 608 may be subsequently performed, in order to expose the material of the gate support elements 622 for the subsequent etching of this material, if needed. Planarization may be performed using either wet or dry planarization processes. In one embodiment, planarization is performed using chemical mechanical planarization (CMP), which may be understood as a process that utilizes a polishing surface, an abrasive and a slurry to remove the overburden of the electrically conductive material which may cover upper surfaces of the gate support elements 622 to expose such surfaces for the subsequent etch.

In some embodiments, the assembly 608 may be considered to be the end of fabricating the gate metals 404 in that further processing for forming other elements of a quantum device can be carried out after the assembly 608 is formed. In such embodiments, some of the adjacent gate metals 404 may have a non-metallic material of the gate support elements 622 in between, while other adjacent gate metals 404 may have a gap in between, as shown in the illustration of FIG. 27D. In other embodiments, the method 500 may proceed with an optional step of removing some or all of the material of the gate support elements 622 (a process 510 shown in FIG. 26, a result of which is shown in FIG. 27E as an arrangement 610). FIG. 27E illustrates a cross-sectional view subsequent to the removal of the gate support elements 622 from between the electrically conductive material deposited on the sidewalls of the gate support elements 622 in the assembly 608 of FIG. 27D. In some embodiments, such a removal may include anisotropic etch to vertically etch away the material of the gate support elements 622. Etchants used in this etch would be different from those described above for etching the electrically conductive material, because this time, preferably, the electrically conductive material of the gate metal 404 would not be etched. Any substance suitable for anisotropically etching the gate support elements 622 may be used in forming the assembly 610 in the process 510.

Removal of the gate support elements 622 results in forming a pattern of electrically conductive elements, as e.g. shown in the assembly 610, which form a plurality of gate metals 404 with gaps in between. In fact, the assembly 610 shown in FIG. 27E is substantially the same as the gate metal arrangement 400 shown in FIG. 25. In various embodiments, an average width of each gate metal 404 may be between 3 nanometers and 75 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. between about 3 and 35 nanometers, between about 7 and 25 nanometers, or between about 8 and 20 nanometers. In some embodiments, the width of the gate metal 404 may be as described above with reference to the gate metal 110 or the gate metal 112. In various embodiments, an average height of each gate metal may be between 5 and 1000 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein. In some embodiments, the height of the gate metal 404 may be as described above with reference to the gate metal 110 or the gate metal 112. In some embodiments, the gate metals 404 may have a pitch, i.e. a distance between the centerlines of two gate metals 404 next to one another, of between 10 and 100 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. between 10 and 45 nanometers or between 20 and 40 nanometers. An average width and an average height of each gate metal 404 may be specified in terms of the pitch, e.g. the width could be substantially half of the pitch, while the height could be substantially 1.5 times of the pitch.

The method 500 may include another optional process where, following or substituting removal of the gate support elements 622, an insulating material is provided in between adjacent gate metals 404 separated by a gap (a process 512 shown in FIG. 26, a result of which is shown in FIG. 27F as an arrangement 612). FIG. 27F illustrates a cross-sectional view subsequent to filling the spaces between the gate metals 404 of the assembly 610 shown in FIG. 27E with a suitable insulating material 626, which could e.g. be the insulating material 130 described herein. In some embodiments, the insulating material 626 may be provided into the gaps between the gate metals 404 using e.g. CVD and/or plasma-enhanced CVD. In still other embodiments, the insulating material 626 may include a dielectric material formed in the spaces between the gate metals 404 using coating techniques involving cross-linking of liquid precursors into solid dielectric materials.

In some embodiments, some or all of the surfaces of the gate metals 404 of the assembly 610 may be cleaned or treated prior to applying the insulating material 626, e.g. to reduce surface contamination, minimize interface traps, promote adhesion, and/or decrease interdiffusion of materials.

For example, the surfaces of the gate metals 404 may be cleaned using chemical or plasma clean, or applying heat in a controlled environment.

After filling in spaces between the gate metals 404 with the insulating material 626, optionally, planarization may be performed again, e.g. using any of the planarization techniques described above, to expose the upper surfaces of the gate metals 404 so that the gates may be electrically connected to further circuit elements (not specifically shown in FIG. 27F).

Fabricating the gate metals 404 by depositing the electrically conductive material, typically a metal, in a spacer-like fashion (i.e. as a “spacer”) around the gate support elements 622 may allow realizing several advantages, in particular when compared to conventional methods of providing gate metals by, first, depositing a layer of metal, and then patterning the metal to form gates of desired shapes and in desired patterns.

One advantage is that the methods described herein allow atomic-level control of the dimension and location of the metal gates. For example, the gate metal may have a width below about 10 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. below about 5 nanometers or below about 3 nanometers.

Another advantage relates to the resulting metal gates having decreased surface roughness on their sidewalls compared to what could be achieved using prior art fabrication methods. In some embodiments, a width of an individual gate metal (i.e. the dimension in the x-direction of the exemplary reference system shown in the FIGS.) formed using the methods described herein, e.g. of an individual gate metal 404, along a height of that gate metal may vary by less than 10 percent, preferably less than 5%, e.g. less than 3 or 2%, of an average width of the gate metal along its' height. Having a width of a gate metal varying by less than a certain, relatively small, amount compared to the average width along the height of the gate metal indicates that the sidewalls of the gate metal have relatively low surface roughness. Such relatively slow surface roughness may be advantageously achieved using the methods of forming electrically conductive gate metals as described herein and was not possible to achieve using prior art fabrication techniques.

FIGS. 28A-B are top views of a wafer 1100 and dies 1102 that may be formed from the wafer 1100; the dies 1102 may be included in any of the quantum device packages (e.g., the quantum dot device package 300) disclosed herein. The wafer 1100 may include semiconductor material and may include one or more dies 1102 having conventional and quantum dot device elements formed on a surface of the wafer 1100. Each of the dies 1102 may be a repeating unit of a semiconductor product that includes any suitable conventional and/or quantum dot device. After the fabrication of the semiconductor product is complete, the wafer 1100 may undergo a singulation process in which each die 1102 is separated from the others to provide discrete “chips” of the semiconductor product. A die 1102 may include one or more quantum devices as described herein, e.g. quantum dot devices 100, and/or supporting circuitry to route electrical signals to the quantum devices (e.g., interconnects including conductive vias and lines), as well as any other integrated circuit (IC) components. In some embodiments, the wafer 1100 or the die 1102 may include a memory device (e.g., a static random access memory (SRAM) device), a logic device (e.g., AND, OR, NAND, or NOR gate), or any other suitable circuit element. Multiple ones of these devices may be combined on a single die 1102. For example, a memory array formed by multiple memory devices may be formed on a same die 1102 as a processing device (e.g., the processing device 2002 of FIG. 30) or other logic that is configured to store information in the memory devices or execute instructions stored in the memory array.

FIG. 29 is a cross-sectional side view of a device assembly 1200 that may include any of the embodiments of the quantum device packages disclosed herein, e.g. any of the embodiments of the quantum dot device packages 300 disclosed herein. The device assembly 1200 includes a number of components disposed on a circuit board 1202. The device assembly 1200 may include components disposed on a first face 1240 of the circuit board 1202 and an opposing second face 1242 of the circuit board 1202; generally, components may be disposed on one or both faces 1240 and 1242.

In some embodiments, the circuit board 1202 may be a printed circuit board (PCB) including multiple metal layers separated from one another by layers of dielectric material and interconnected by electrically conductive vias. Any one or more of the metal layers may be formed in a desired circuit pattern to route electrical signals (optionally in conjunction with other metal layers) between the components coupled to the circuit board 1202. In other embodiments, the circuit board 1202 may be a package substrate or flexible board. In some embodiments, the die 302 and the die 350 (FIG. 23) may be separately packaged and coupled together via the circuit board 1202 (e.g., the conductive pathways 317 may run through the circuit board 1202).

The device assembly 1200 illustrated in FIG. 29 includes a package-on-interposer structure 1236 coupled to the first face 1240 of the circuit board 1202 by coupling components 1216. The coupling components 1216 may electrically and mechanically couple the package-on-interposer structure 1236 to the circuit board 1202, and may include solder balls (as shown in FIG. 23), male and female portions of a socket, an adhesive, an underfill material, and/or any other suitable electrical and/or mechanical coupling structure.

The package-on-interposer structure 1236 may include a package 1220 coupled to an interposer 1204 by coupling components 1218. The coupling components 1218 may take any suitable form for the application, such as the forms discussed above with reference to the coupling components 1216. For example, the coupling components 1218 may be the second level interconnects 308. Although a single package 1220 is shown in FIG. 29, multiple packages may be coupled to the interposer 1204; indeed, additional interposers may be coupled to the interposer 1204. The interposer 1204 may provide an intervening substrate used to bridge the circuit board 1202 and the package 1220. The package 1220 may be a quantum dot device package 300 or may be a conventional IC package, for example. In some embodiments, the package 1220 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the quantum dot device package 300 disclosed herein, and may include a quantum dot device die 302 coupled to a package substrate 304 (e.g., by flip chip connections). Generally, the interposer 1204 may spread a connection to a wider pitch or reroute a connection to a different connection. For example, the interposer 1204 may couple the package 1220 (e.g., a die) to a ball grid array (BGA) of the coupling components 1216 for coupling to the circuit board 1202. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 29, the package 1220 and the circuit board 1202 are attached to opposing sides of the interposer 1204; in other embodiments, the package 1220 and the circuit board 1202 may be attached to a same side of the interposer 1204. In some embodiments, three or more components may be interconnected by way of the interposer 1204. In some embodiments, a quantum dot device package 300 including the die 302 and the die 350 (FIG. 23) may be one of the packages disposed on an interposer like the interposer 1204. In some embodiments, the die 302 and the die 350 (FIG. 23) may be separately packaged and coupled together via the interposer 1204 (e.g., the conductive pathways 317 may run through the interposer 1204).

The interposer 1204 may be formed of an epoxy resin, a fiberglass-reinforced epoxy resin, a ceramic material, or a polymer material such as polyimide. In some embodiments, the interposer 1204 may be formed of alternate rigid or flexible materials that may include the same materials described above for use in a semiconductor substrate, such as silicon, germanium, and other group III-group V compounds and group IV materials. The interposer 1204 may include metal interconnects 1208 and vias 1210, including but not limited to through-silicon vias (TSVs) 1206. The interposer 1204 may further include embedded devices 1214, including both passive and active devices. Such devices may include, but are not limited to, capacitors, decoupling capacitors, resistors, inductors, fuses, diodes, transformers, sensors, electrostatic discharge (ESD) devices, and memory devices. More complex devices such as radio frequency (RF) devices, power amplifiers, power management devices, antennas, arrays, sensors, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices may also be formed on the interposer 1204. The package-on-interposer structure 1236 may take the form of any of the package-on-interposer structures known in the art.

The device assembly 1200 may include a package 1224 coupled to the first face 1240 of the circuit board 1202 by coupling components 1222. The coupling components 1222 may take the form of any of the embodiments discussed above with reference to the coupling components 1216, and the package 1224 may take the form of any of the embodiments discussed above with reference to the package 1220. The package 1224 may be a quantum dot device package 300 (e.g., including the die 302 and the die 350, or just the die 302) or may be a conventional IC package, for example. In some embodiments, the package 1224 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the quantum dot device package 300 disclosed herein, and may include a quantum dot device die 302 coupled to a package substrate 304 (e.g., by flip chip connections).

The device assembly 1200 illustrated in FIG. 29 includes a package-on-package structure 1234 coupled to the second face 1242 of the circuit board 1202 by coupling components 1228. The package-on-package structure 1234 may include a package 1226 and a package 1232 coupled together by coupling components 1230 such that the package 1226 is disposed between the circuit board 1202 and the package 1232. The coupling components 1228 and 1230 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the coupling components 1216 discussed above, and the packages 1226 and 1232 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the package 1220 discussed above. Each of the packages 1226 and 1232 may be a quantum dot device package 300 or may be a conventional IC package, for example. In some embodiments, one or both of the packages 1226 and 1232 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the quantum dot device package 300 disclosed herein, and may include a die 302 coupled to a package substrate 304 (e.g., by flip chip connections). In some embodiments, a quantum dot device package 300 including the die 302 and the die 350 (FIG. 23) may be one of the packages in a package-on-package structure like the package-on-package structure 1234. In some embodiments, the die 302 and the die 350 (FIG. 23) may be separately packaged and coupled together using a package-on-package structure like the package-on-package structure 1234 (e.g., the conductive pathways 317 may run through a package substrate of one or both of the packages of the dies 302 and 350).

FIG. 30 is a block diagram of an example quantum computing device 2000 that may include any of the quantum dot devices disclosed herein. A number of components are illustrated in FIG. 30 as included in the quantum computing device 2000, but any one or more of these components may be omitted or duplicated, as suitable for the application. In some embodiments, some or all of the components included in the quantum computing device 2000 may be attached to one or more PCBs (e.g., a motherboard). In some embodiments, various ones of these components may be fabricated onto a single SoC die. Additionally, in various embodiments, the quantum computing device 2000 may not include one or more of the components illustrated in FIG. 30, but the quantum computing device 2000 may include interface circuitry for coupling to the one or more components. For example, the quantum computing device 2000 may not include a display device 2006, but may include display device interface circuitry (e.g., a connector and driver circuitry) to which a display device 2006 may be coupled. In another set of examples, the quantum computing device 2000 may not include an audio input device 2018 or an audio output device 2008, but may include audio input or output device interface circuitry (e.g., connectors and supporting circuitry) to which an audio input device 2018 or audio output device 2008 may be coupled.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a processing device 2002 (e.g., one or more processing devices). As used herein, the term “processing device” or “processor” may refer to any device or portion of a device that processes electronic data from registers and/or memory to transform that electronic data into other electronic data that may be stored in registers and/or memory. The processing device 2002 may include a quantum processing device 2026 (e.g., one or more quantum processing devices), and a non-quantum processing device 2028 (e.g., one or more non-quantum processing devices). The quantum processing device 2026 may include one or more of the quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein, and may perform data processing by performing operations on the quantum dots that may be generated in the quantum dot devices 100, and monitoring the result of those operations. For example, as discussed above, different quantum dots may be allowed to interact, the quantum states of different quantum dots may be set or transformed, and the quantum states of quantum dots may be read (e.g., by another quantum dot). The quantum processing device 2026 may be a universal quantum processor, or specialized quantum processor configured to run one or more particular quantum algorithms. In some embodiments, the quantum processing device 2026 may execute algorithms that are particularly suitable for quantum computers, such as cryptographic algorithms that utilize prime factorization, encryption/decryption, algorithms to optimize chemical reactions, algorithms to model protein folding, etc. The quantum processing device 2026 may also include support circuitry to support the processing capability of the quantum processing device 2026, such as input/output channels, multiplexers, signal mixers, quantum amplifiers, and analog-to-digital converters. For example, the quantum processing device 2026 may include circuitry (e.g., a current source) to provide current pulses to one or more magnet lines 121 included in the quantum dot device 100.

As noted above, the processing device 2002 may include a non-quantum processing device 2028. In some embodiments, the non-quantum processing device 2028 may provide peripheral logic to support the operation of the quantum processing device 2026. For example, the non-quantum processing device 2028 may control the performance of a read operation, control the performance of a write operation, control the clearing of quantum bits, etc. The non-quantum processing device 2028 may also perform conventional computing functions to supplement the computing functions provided by the quantum processing device 2026. For example, the non-quantum processing device 2028 may interface with one or more of the other components of the quantum computing device 2000 (e.g., the communication chip 2012 discussed below, the display device 2006 discussed below, etc.) in a conventional manner, and may serve as an interface between the quantum processing device 2026 and conventional components. The non-quantum processing device 2028 may include one or more DSPs, ASICs, central processing units (CPUs), graphics processing units (GPUs), cryptoprocessors (specialized processors that execute cryptographic algorithms within hardware), server processors, or any other suitable processing devices.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a memory 2004, which may itself include one or more memory devices such as volatile memory (e.g., dynamic random access memory (DRAM)), nonvolatile memory (e.g., ROM), flash memory, solid state memory, and/or a hard drive. In some embodiments, the states of qubits in the quantum processing device 2026 may be read and stored in the memory 2004. In some embodiments, the memory 2004 may include memory that shares a die with the non-quantum processing device 2028. This memory may be used as cache memory and may include embedded dynamic random access memory (eDRAM) or spin transfer torque magnetic random access memory (STT-MRAM).

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a cooling apparatus 2024. The cooling apparatus 2024 may maintain the quantum processing device 2026 at a predetermined low temperature during operation to reduce the effects of scattering in the quantum processing device 2026. This predetermined low temperature may vary depending on the setting; in some embodiments, the temperature may be 5 Kelvin or less. In some embodiments, the non-quantum processing device 2028 (and various other components of the quantum computing device 2000) may not be cooled by the cooling apparatus 2024, and may instead operate at room temperature. The cooling apparatus 2024 may be, for example, a dilution refrigerator, a helium-3 refrigerator, or a liquid helium refrigerator.

In some embodiments, the quantum computing device 2000 may include a communication chip 2012 (e.g., one or more communication chips). For example, the communication chip 2012 may be configured for managing wireless communications for the transfer of data to and from the quantum computing device 2000. The term “wireless” and its derivatives may be used to describe circuits, devices, systems, methods, techniques, communications channels, etc., that may communicate data through the use of modulated electromagnetic radiation through a nonsolid medium. The term does not imply that the associated devices do not contain any wires, although in some embodiments they might not.

The communication chip 2012 may implement any of a number of wireless standards or protocols, including but not limited to Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) standards including Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 family), IEEE 802.16 standards (e.g., IEEE 802.16-2005 Amendment), Long-Term Evolution (LTE) project along with any amendments, updates, and/or revisions (e.g., advanced LTE project, ultramobile broadband (UMB) project (also referred to as “3GPP2”), etc.). IEEE 802.16 compatible Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) networks are generally referred to as WiMAX networks, an acronym that stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, which is a certification mark for products that pass conformity and interoperability tests for the IEEE 802.16 standards. The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordance with a Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), Evolved HSPA (E-HSPA), or LTE network. The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordance with Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution (EDGE), GSM EDGE Radio Access Network (GERAN), Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN), or Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN). The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordance with Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), and derivatives thereof, as well as any other wireless protocols that are designated as 3G, 4G, 5G, and beyond. The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordance with other wireless protocols in other embodiments. The quantum computing device 2000 may include an antenna 2022 to facilitate wireless communications and/or to receive other wireless communications (such as AM or FM radio transmissions).

In some embodiments, the communication chip 2012 may manage wired communications, such as electrical, optical, or any other suitable communication protocols (e.g., the Ethernet). As noted above, the communication chip 2012 may include multiple communication chips. For instance, a first communication chip 2012 may be dedicated to shorter-range wireless communications such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, and a second communication chip 2012 may be dedicated to longer-range wireless communications such as global positioning system (GPS), EDGE, GPRS, CDMA, WiMAX, LTE, EV-DO, or others. In some embodiments, a first communication chip 2012 may be dedicated to wireless communications, and a second communication chip 2012 may be dedicated to wired communications.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include battery/power circuitry 2014. The battery/power circuitry 2014 may include one or more energy storage devices (e.g., batteries or capacitors) and/or circuitry for coupling components of the quantum computing device 2000 to an energy source separate from the quantum computing device 2000 (e.g., AC line power).

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a display device 2006 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). The display device 2006 may include any visual indicators, such as a heads-up display, a computer monitor, a projector, a touchscreen display, a liquid crystal display (LCD), a light-emitting diode display, or a flat panel display, for example.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an audio output device 2008 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). The audio output device 2008 may include any device that generates an audible indicator, such as speakers, headsets, or earbuds, for example.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an audio input device 2024 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). The audio input device 2024 may include any device that generates a signal representative of a sound, such as microphones, microphone arrays, or digital instruments (e.g., instruments having a musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) output).

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a GPS device 2016 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). The GPS device 2016 may be in communication with a satellite-based system and may receive a location of the quantum computing device 2000, as known in the art.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an other output device 2010 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). Examples of the other output device 2010 may include an audio codec, a video codec, a printer, a wired or wireless transmitter for providing information to other devices, or an additional storage device.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an other input device 2020 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). Examples of the other input device 2020 may include an accelerometer, a gyroscope, a compass, an image capture device, a keyboard, a cursor control device such as a mouse, a stylus, a touchpad, a bar code reader, a Quick Response (QR) code reader, any sensor, or a radio frequency identification (RFID) reader.

The quantum computing device 2000, or a subset of its components, may have any appropriate form factor, such as a hand-held or mobile computing device (e.g., a cell phone, a smart phone, a mobile internet device, a music player, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a netbook computer, an ultrabook computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), an ultramobile personal computer, etc.), a desktop computing device, a server or other networked computing component, a printer, a scanner, a monitor, a set-top box, an entertainment control unit, a vehicle control unit, a digital camera, a digital video recorder, or a wearable computing device.

Select Examples

The following paragraphs provide examples of various ones of the embodiments disclosed herein.

Example 1 provides quantum device, including a qubit device layer, a gate metal, and a gate dielectric between the qubit device layer and the gate metal, where directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of the gate metal deviate from a direction perpendicular to the qubit device layer by less than about 40 degrees, e.g. by less than about 30 degrees or by less than about 20 degrees.

Example 2 provides the quantum device according to Example 1, where the qubit device layer includes a quantum well stack, i.e. the quantum device is a quantum dot spin qubit device.

Example 3 provides the quantum device according to Example 2, where the quantum well stack includes a quantum well layer, where the quantum well layer includes an isotopically purified material.

Example 4 provides the quantum device according to Example 1, where the qubit device layer includes one or more donor-based qubit systems.

Example 5 provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 1-4, where a width of the gate metal along a height of the gate metal varies less than about 20 percent of an average width of the gate metal.

Example 6 provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 1-4, where an average width of the gate metal is between about 3 and 35 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. between about 7 and 25 nm, or between about 8 and 20 nm.

Example 7 provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 1-4, where the gate metal has a width below about 10 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. below about 5 nanometers.

Example 8 provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 1-4, where the gate metal has an aspect ratio (i.e. a ratio of height of the gate metal to the width of the gate metal) above about 3, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. above about 5 or above about 10.

Example 9 provides the quantum device according to any one of the preceding Examples, further including an etch stop layer between the gate metal and the qubit device layer.

Example 10 provides the quantum device according to any one of the preceding Examples, where the quantum device includes a plurality of gates, each of the plurality of gates including the gate metal.

Example 11 provides the quantum device according to Example 10, where adjacent gates of the plurality of gates are spaced apart by a gap.

In other embodiments, adjacent gates of the plurality of gates may be spaced apart by an insulating material.

Example 12 provides a quantum device that includes a qubit device layer, a gate metal, and a gate dielectric between the qubit device layer and the gate metal, where a width of the gate metal along a height of the gate metal varies less than about 10 percent of an average width of the gate metal, e.g. less than about 8 percent or less than about 5 percent.

Example 13 provides the quantum device according to Example 12, where the average width of the gate metal is between about 3 and 35 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. between about 7 and 25 nm, or between about 8 and 20 nm.

Example 14 provides the quantum device according to Examples 12 or 13, where the qubit device layer includes a quantum well stack, i.e. the quantum device is a quantum dot spin qubit device.

Example 15 provides the quantum device according to Example 14, where the quantum well stack includes a quantum well layer, where the quantum well layer includes an isotopically purified material.

Example 16 provides the quantum device according to Examples 12 or 13, where the qubit device layer includes one or more donor-based qubit systems.

Example 17 provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 12-16, further including an etch stop layer between the gate metal and the qubit device layer.

Example 18 provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 12-17, where the quantum device includes a plurality of gates, each of the plurality of gates including the gate metal.

Example 19 provides the quantum device according to Example 18, where adjacent gates of the plurality of gates are spaced apart by a gap.

Example 20 provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 12-19, where directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of the gate metal deviate from a direction perpendicular to the qubit device layer by less than about 40 degrees, e.g. by less than about 30 degrees or by less than about 20 degrees.

In further Examples, at least portions of any of the quantum devices according to any one of Examples 12-20 may include features of any of the quantum devices according to any one of Examples 1-11, and vice versa. In still further examples, at least portions of Example provides the quantum device according to any one of Examples 1-20 may be fabricated using Example provides the method according to any one of Examples 21-26 and may be operated using Example provides the method according to any one of Examples 27-29.

Example 21 provides a method of manufacturing a quantum device, the method including providing a gate dielectric over a qubit device layer, providing a pattern of gate support elements over the gate dielectric, and depositing a gate metal on sidewalls of the gate support elements to form a plurality of gates of the quantum device.

Example 22 provides the method according to Example 21, where the gate support elements are formed of a non-metallic material.

Example 23 provides the method according to Examples 21 or 22, where the pattern of gate support elements is a plurality of parallel lines having a height between about 5 and 1000 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. between about 10 and 500 nm, or between about 20 and 300 nm, and a width between about 5 and 300 nanometers, including all values and ranges therein, e.g. between about 10 and 200 nm, or between about 20 and 150 nm.

Example 24 provides the method according to any one of Examples 21-23, where depositing the gate metal on the sidewalls of the gate support elements includes using atomic layer deposition or chemical vapor deposition to deposit the gate metal on the sidewalls and in openings between the gate support elements, and using anisotropic etch to vertically remove at least a portion of the gate metal deposited in the openings between the gate support elements.

Example 25 provides the method according to any one of Examples 21-24, further including removing the gate support elements.

Example 26 provides the method according to Example 25, where removing the gate support elements includes using a selective dry etch to remove the gate support elements.

Example 27 provides a method of operating a quantum dot device, the method including providing electrical signals to one or more first gates above a quantum well stack as part of causing a first quantum well to form in a quantum well layer in the quantum well stack, providing electrical signals to one or more second gates above the quantum well stack as part of causing a second quantum well to form in the quantum well layer in the quantum well stack, and providing electrical signals to one or more third gates above the quantum well stack to (1) cause a third quantum well to form in the quantum well layer in the quantum well stack or (2) provide a potential barrier between the first quantum well and the second quantum well, where one or more of the one or more first gates, the one or more second gates, and the one or more third gates include metal grains aligned substantially perpendicular to the quantum well layer, e.g. aligned so that directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of one or more of these gates deviate from a line perpendicular to the quantum well layer by less than about 40 degrees, e.g. by less than about 30 degrees or by less than about 20 degrees.

Example 28 provides the method according to Example 27, where adjacent gates above the quantum well stack are spaced apart by a gap.

Example 29 provides the method according to Examples 27 or 28, further including populating the first quantum well with a quantum dot.

Example 30 provides a quantum computing device that includes a quantum processing device and a non-quantum processing device. The quantum processing device includes a qubit device layer and further includes a plurality of gates above the qubit device layer to control spin states of qubit elements in the qubit device layer, where at least one of the plurality of gates includes metal grains aligned substantially perpendicular to the qubit device layer, e.g. aligned so that directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of one or more of these gates deviate from a line perpendicular to the qubit device layer by less than about 40 degrees, e.g. by less than about 30 degrees or by less than about 20 degrees. The non-quantum processing device is coupled to the quantum processing device and is configured to control voltages applied to the plurality of gates.

Example 31 provides the quantum computing device according to Example 30, further including a memory device to store data generated by spin states of the qubit elements formed in the qubit device layer during operation of the quantum processing device.

In further Examples, the memory device may be configured to store instructions for a quantum computing algorithm to be executed by the quantum processing device.

Example 32 provides the quantum computing device according to Examples 30 or 31, where the qubit device layer includes a quantum well stack, and where the qubit elements include quantum dots formed in the quantum well stack during operation of the quantum processing device.

Example 33 provides the quantum computing device according to any one of Examples 30-32, further including a cooling apparatus configured to maintain a temperature of the quantum processing device below 5 degrees Kelvin.

In further Examples, at least portions of the quantum processing device according to any one of Examples 30-33 may include features of any of the quantum devices according to any one of Examples 1-20. In still further examples, at least portions of the quantum processing device according to any one of Examples 30-33 may be fabricated using Example provides the method according to any one of Examples 21-26 and may be operated using Example provides the method according to any one of Examples 27-29.

The above description of illustrated implementations of the disclosure, including what is described in the Abstract, is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the disclosure to the precise forms disclosed. While specific implementations of, and examples for, the disclosure are described herein for illustrative purposes, various equivalent modifications are possible within the scope of the disclosure, as those skilled in the relevant art will recognize. These modifications may be made to the disclosure in light of the above detailed description. The terms used in the following claims should not be construed to limit the disclosure to the specific implementations disclosed in the specification and the claims. 

1. A quantum device, comprising: a qubit device layer; a gate metal; and a gate dielectric between the qubit device layer and the gate metal, wherein directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of the gate metal deviate from a direction perpendicular to the qubit device layer by less than 40 degrees.
 2. The quantum device according to claim 1, wherein the qubit device layer includes a quantum well stack.
 3. The quantum device according to claim 2, wherein the quantum well stack includes a quantum well layer, wherein the quantum well layer includes an isotopically purified material.
 4. The quantum device according to claim 1, wherein the qubit device layer includes one or more donor-based qubit systems.
 5. The quantum device according to claim 1, wherein a width of the gate metal along a height of the gate metal varies less than 20 percent of an average width of the gate metal.
 6. The quantum device according to claim 1, wherein an average width of the gate metal is between 3 and 35 nanometers.
 7. The quantum device according to claim 1, wherein the gate metal has a width below 10 nanometers.
 8. The quantum device according to claim 1, wherein the gate metal has an aspect ratio above
 3. 9. The quantum device according to claim 1, further comprising an etch stop layer between the gate metal and the qubit device layer.
 10. The quantum device according to claim 1, wherein the quantum device includes a plurality of gates, each of the plurality of gates including the gate metal.
 11. The quantum device according to claim 10, wherein adjacent gates of the plurality of gates are spaced apart by a gap.
 12. A quantum device, comprising: a qubit device layer; a gate metal; and a gate dielectric between the qubit device layer and the gate metal, wherein a width of the gate metal along a height of the gate metal varies less than 10 percent of an average width of the gate metal.
 13. The quantum device according to claim 12, wherein the average width of the gate metal is between 3 and 35 nanometers.
 14. The quantum device according to claim 12, wherein the qubit device layer includes a quantum well stack.
 15. The quantum device according to claim 12, wherein directions of alignment of at least 80% of metal grains of the gate metal deviate from a direction perpendicular to the qubit device layer by less than 40 degrees.
 16. A method of manufacturing a quantum device, the method comprising: providing a gate dielectric over a qubit device layer; providing a pattern of gate support elements over the gate dielectric; and depositing a gate metal on sidewalls of the gate support elements to form a plurality of gates of the quantum device.
 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein the gate support elements are formed of a non-metallic material.
 18. The method according to claim 16, wherein the pattern of gate support elements is a plurality of parallel structures having a height between 5 and 1000 nanometers, and a width between 5 and 300 nanometers.
 19. The method according to claim 16, wherein depositing the gate metal on the sidewalls of the gate support elements comprises: using atomic layer deposition or chemical vapor deposition to deposit the gate metal on the sidewalls and in openings between the gate support elements, and using anisotropic etch to remove at least a portion of the gate metal deposited in the openings between the gate support elements.
 20. The method according to claim 16, further comprising removing the gate support elements.
 21. The method according to claim 20, wherein removing the gate support elements includes using a selective dry etch to remove the gate support elements.
 22. A method of operating a quantum dot device, the method comprising: providing electrical signals to one or more first gates above a quantum well stack as part of causing a first quantum well to form in a quantum well layer in the quantum well stack; providing electrical signals to one or more second gates above the quantum well stack as part of causing a second quantum well to form in the quantum well layer in the quantum well stack; and providing electrical signals to one or more third gates above the quantum well stack to (1) cause a third quantum well to form in the quantum well layer in the quantum well stack or (2) provide a potential barrier between the first quantum well and the second quantum well, wherein one or more of the one or more first gates, the one or more second gates, and the one or more third gates include metal grains aligned substantially perpendicular to the quantum well layer.
 23. The method according to claim 22, further comprising populating the first quantum well with a quantum dot.
 24. A quantum computing device, comprising: a quantum processing device, wherein the quantum processing device includes a qubit device layer and further includes a plurality of gates above the qubit device layer to control spin states of qubit elements in the qubit device layer, and wherein at least one of the plurality of gates includes metal grains aligned substantially perpendicular to the qubit device layer; and a non-quantum processing device, coupled to the quantum processing device, to control voltages applied to the plurality of gates.
 25. The quantum computing device according to claim 24, further comprising: a cooling apparatus configured to maintain a temperature of the quantum processing device below 5 degrees Kelvin. 